The Indo Aryan civilization in India

 

Much has been written and debated about the origins of the Aryans who came to India after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization which came to an end around 1500 BCE. While some scholars favour the out of India origin of the Indo Aryans others favour that the Aryans originated in India. The word Aryan comes from the Sanskrit word ‘arya’ which means the noble ones. The Aryans migrated from their ancestral homes in central Asia corresponding to modern Russia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan.The timing of the Indo European migrations can be traced back to 4000 BCE in Europe when the speakers of Proto Indo European languages spread and dispersed through large parts of Iran, Russia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Turkey, and Greece, and a large part of northern India. This dispersal has been confirmed by linguistics, archaeology, anthropology, and genetics. This explains the similarity between various languages like Sanskrit, Persian, Russian, Greek, Hindi, Urdu, Marathi, Punjabi, Assamese, Bengali, and Gujarati. We also notice a striking similarity in the use of the past tense in Russian and many Indo Aryan languages.

It has been claimed by many historians that the Aryans destroyed the Indus Valley civilization and that they entered India as invaders. The Aryans entered India after the demise of the Indus valley civilization around 1500 BCE and there is no direct evidence linking the Indo Aryans to the destruction of the Indus Valley civilization. The religion and the rituals of the Indo Aryans bears a striking resemblance to those of ancient Iranian religions and Greek religions. For example, the horse is considered as an indispensable trait of the Aryan culture and the term asva(horse) appears in the Rig Veda and in Zend Avesta the religious text of the Iranians. It also appears in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and other Indo European languages. Similarly, the pit dwellings, sacrificial rituals, the svastika, language, and inscriptional evidence is a common feature among the speakers of the Indo Aryan languages.

The speakers of the Indo Aryan languages came to be identified by their tribal identity and subsequently, it gave rise to Jana and varna system of social differentiation. This system of social differentiation eventually gave rise to jatis or castes like the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.Tribal conflicts were frequent among the Indo Aryans.The rajan(king) was expected to lead the tribes in battle against each other.The four Vedas namely the Rigveda, Yajurveda,Atharvaveda and Samaveda were composed in this period. Eventually, this formed the basis of the Vedic age which lasted from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in ancient India.

The Roman Empire

 

The Roman empire was the most powerful empire in the history of Western civilization. Its transition from a republic to an empire was marked by a change in the form of rule. Initially, in the Roman republic, it was ruled by annually elected magistrates (Roman consuls) in cooperation with the Roman senate. The political upheaval of the 1^st century BC eventually led to rule by emperors. Rome endured a series of conspiracies, internal conflicts and civil wars beginning in the late 2^nd century BC and its power began to extend beyond Italy. This period is known as the crisis of the Roman republic.

The crisis of the roman republic was the period of social unrest and political instability from about 134 BC to 44 BC that led to the end of the roman republic and the beginning of the Roman empire. Towards the end of this era in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was dictator for a short time before he was assassinated by a group of senators. The senators wanted to restore the Roman republic and they feared the full concentration of powers in the hands of Julius Caesar would undermine the Roman republic. After the assassination of Julius Caesar, the triumvirate of Lepidus, Octavian, and Mark Antony ruled over Rome. However, Octavian went to war against Antony in north Africa and after his victory in the battle of Actium(31BCE), he became Rome’s first emperor Augustus. The reign of Augustus ushered in a period of social stability and economic prosperity. The form of government was principate which combined few elements of a republic with that of a monarchy. The Pax Romana (Roman peace) was a 200-year time of peace and prosperity.

After the death of Augustus his heir Tiberius(14-37AD) assumed power and he continued his predecessor’s policies. It was during the rule of Tiberius that Jesus Christ was crucified. After Tiberius, the Roman empire was ruled by Caligula (37-41 AD), Claudius (41-54 AD), and Nero (54-68 AD). The first five rulers of the empire are known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty due to the two-family names they descended from (either by birth or due to adoption), Julius and Claudius. Claudius expanded Roman rule in Britain. Caligula and Claudius were both assassinated while on the throne. Nero’s suicide ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and thus began the period of social unrest known as the rule of the four emperors. The four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Following Nero’s suicide in 68 AD Galba assumed power but he proved incompetent to rule. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. Otho succeeded him and records indicate that he was expected to be a good emperor. General Vitellius wanted the throne for himself and thus civil war began which ended in Otho’s suicide and the ascendancy of Vitellius on the throne. Vitellius did not prove fit for the throne and the throne subsequently passed to Vespasian who became the founder of the short Flavian dynasty. The Flavian dynasty was followed by the Nerva-Antonine dynasty who ruled over the Roman empire from 96 AD to 192 AD. These emperors were Nerva(96-98AD), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), Lucius Verus (161-169), Marcus Aurelius (169-180) and Commodus (180-192).

During the rule of Commodus, the empire went in to decline. After his death, the Severan dynasty came to power whose rule was tumultuous, and following the collapse of the Severan dynasty the Roman empire suffered due to the crisis of the Third century which was characterized by invasions, economic disorder, civil strife, and plague. Aurelian (270-275) again went to the task of stabilizing the empire. His successor Diocletian(284-305) completed the work of fully restoring the empire, Diocletian divided the empire into four regions each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy eventually collapsed and Diocletian abdicated along with his co-emperor. Finally, an order was restored by Constantine the Great who was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and he established Constantinople(Istanbul) as the new capital of the Eastern Roman empire later called the Byzantine empire. During the rule of the Constantinian and the Valentinian dynasties the empire was divided into two parts east and west with dual capitals in Rome and Constantinople. The last emperor to rule over both east and west was Theodosius I who died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire.

The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5^th century due to Germanic migrations. The Romans were successful in resisting these migrations most notably of Attila. The Western Roman Empire finally collapsed due to this migration in 476 AD when the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to Odoacer the Germanic warlord. The Eastern part of the Roman Empire known as the Byzantine empire continued for the next 1000 years when it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453.

The Romans have left a legacy in innovations and inventions. The days of the week and months of the year all come from Rome. The aqueducts, colosseum of Rome in Italy, and advancements in the construction of roads and buildings can be traced to the Romans. The military of the Romans consisted of mercenaries and hired soldiers and were equipped with the latest advancements in technology. The status of women in the Roman empire was considerably good though women could not hold office and women retained property though they still were under their husband’s authority. The language of the Romans was Latin and during the rule of the Roman emperors, the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. The political ideals of republicanism and the architecture of the Romans have influenced many buildings in Europe and the USA notably the Capitol building in Washington in the USA and the classical architecture in Italy.

The Hundred Years war

The Hundred Years war was a conflict that took place between England and France from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the conflict were the English claims over the French throne and the dispute over the succession of the English crown. The origin of the conflict was the duchy of Guyenne which originally belonged to the English kings but remained a fief of the French crown and the closest relatives of the Capetian king Charles IV who belonged to the English crown and hence the kings of England claimed the kingdom of France.

In the first half of the 14^th century England and France were the most powerful monarchies in Western Europe and France was the largest and richest country in Western Europe. England was also organized and it rivaled France. Technically the English kings were the vassals of the kings of France and the English kings which were Normans and the Angevin was also French. Thus, the French monarchs wanted to keep a check on the growth of English power. England too possessed holdings in France but by 1337 only the province of Gascony was in English hands. In 1328 Charles IV of France died without an heir to the throne and hence the crown passed directly to his closest relative his nephew Edward III of England. But the French rejected Edward III claims to the French throne and instead wanted a Frenchman for the crown of France. Thus, the French Crown went to Charles IV’s cousin Philip VI.

Thus, eventually, war broke out between England and France in which the English led by their king Edward III and his son defeated the French. However, by 1378 the French under King Charles the wise had taken back the lands ceded to King Edward in the treaty of Bretigny signed in 1360. The dispute over Guyenne and Gascony which belonged to England was also the high point of the conflict. Joan of Arc provided a decisive moment in the war and considerably boosted the French morale. The major battles of the war were fought at Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt, and the siege of Orleans in 1429. The emergence of Joan of Arc in the siege of Orleans turned the tide of war against the English. However, she was eventually executed by the English. At the Battle of Castillon fought on 17 July 1453 the English were decisively defeated by the French. Finally, in the treaty of Picquigny signed in 1475 the war came to an end with Edward III renouncing his claim to the French throne.

The victory of France in the Hundred Years War brought to an end the English dreams of a joint monarchy and the rise of national feeling in England and France. The war led to the transformation of France from a feudal monarchy to a centralized state. With the war’s end, England lost all its continental possessions leaving it with only the province of Calais

The Pre-Columbian history of North America

North America is usually considered as the northernmost part of the American continent which comprises the modern countries of USA, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Greenland and the Caribbean countries. The name America is taken from Amerigo Vespucci the Italian navigator and explorer who was the first to explore the continent of America. While discussing the history of North America scholars often overlook the history of North America before its discovery by Christopher Columbus in the late 15^th century. Though Europe, Asia, and Africa were marked by the rise and fall of empires and civilizations this was not the case with America. Before the arrival of European powers, significant civilizations and indigenous American cultures existed in North America. In this article, we will be discussing the Pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of the North American countries.

The continents of North and South America began to take its current form millions of years ago separated from Eurasia and Africa by thousands of kilometers of the ocean except for a tiny stretch of shallow water, the Bering Strait. The Bering Strait connected Alaska (northwestern North America) to Siberia in the Pleistocene era (last ice age). As the ice receded in the last ice age it allowed the movement of early humans. Between 15000 and 13000 years ago the ice cap began to retreat opening an ice-free north-south corridor eventually opening the way from Alaska to the interior of northwestern North America. However, the exact movement of peoples and the pattern of migration is the subject of much debate among archaeologists. The first humans to inhabit North America was known as the Paleo Indians. They lived by hunting and fishing and they hunted mammoths, Mastodon, giant sloths, and horses to extinction. This period was known as the Archaic period and it lasted roughly from 8000BCE to 1000BCE. Numerous archaeological cultures and sites have been identified such as the Clovis culture, Dorset culture, Woodland period, Adena culture, Olmec civilization, Mississippian culture. In the Arctic region of Canada, the indigenous tribes of North America were the Aleut, Inuit and Yupik peoples. The Pueblo peoples, Mandan, Hidatsa and other Pre-Columbian cultures formed large settlements, even cities such as Cahokia in what is now Illinois.

In Canada, the indigenous peoples are known as Aboriginal peoples including First Nations and Inuit whereas in the USA the indigenous peoples are known as Native Americans or American Indians and Alaska natives. The earliest humans in North America which are known through archaeological investigations indicate that they developed complex societal hierarchies, chiefdoms and they were organized in tribes. The Paleo Indians spread out through modern Canada and the USA and their dispersal is confirmed by archaeological finds. The Hopewell tradition, the Inuit, Yupik, Iroquois, the Mississippian cultures, Oasis America, and Adena culture in Canada and the USA are the main archaeological sites related to Paleo Indians. These pre-Columbian cultures and indigenous peoples of North America were discovered by the Vikings (Norse) in their expedition led by Leif Erikson in the year 1000AD.However, the greater part of Europe was unaware of these indigenous civilizations until the voyages of Christopher Columbus.

When the Europeans arrived in the late 15^th century many natives of North America were organized into tribes or confederations. Also, extensive Pre-Columbian sedentary societies existed in what is now the USA. In Mexico and Latin America, the Pre Columbian civilizations were the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, Mixtec, Huastec, Pure Pecha, Toltecs, and Aztecs. The early inhabitants of the Americas practiced agriculture and cultivated corn, potatoes, avocado, and pumpkins. They had extensive trade contacts in the case of Mexico but in the case of Canada and USA the natives built earthen mounds and developed large ceremonial centers. These mounds have been discovered archaeologically such as at Louisiana in USA(3700BCE-3100BCE).From the Europeans perspective American civilizations at the time of European contact were advanced in astronomy and mathematics and had well-populated cities.In Mexico and Cuba, the Taino, Ciboney, Maya, and Aztec civilizations were the most advanced cultures and civilizations and historians agree that the Mayans and Aztecs built large cities, had trade contacts, and possessed an advanced calendar and astronomical knowledge unrivaled by any other civilization. The architecture of the Mayans and Aztecs in Mexico is proof of their accomplishment in architecture.

By the time of the conquest of North America by the Europeans in the late 15^th and 16^th century by Britain, France, and Spain many of these cultures and civilizations had long faded into obscurity and many were forcibly assimilated by the Europeans. In the centuries of conquest by the Europeans, many of these native tribes, kingdoms and civilizations came to an end due to diseases introduced by the Europeans to which they had no immunity like smallpox and measles.

The Beginning of modern Japan

The beginning of modern Japan can be traced to the Meiji Restoration of 1868.Before the Meiji Restoration the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period (1600-1868) ruled over Japan which was characterized by a feudal social and economic system. In the 1500s power came to be decentralized in Japan characterized by warfare between rival feudal lords(daimyo) for almost a century. After the victory in the battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the Tokugawa shogunate came to rule Japan from Edo.The Tokugawa shogunate thus began a dynasty that would rule over Japan till 1868.

The society in the Tokugawa period was centered on the class hierarchy established by the emperor. The emperor and daimyo(lords) constituted the upper class followed by the samurai (warrior class) and the farmers, artisans, and traders at the bottom. The feudalistic nature of Japanese society was based on the Confucian principles of social order. The peasants which comprised 80% of the population was burdened with taxes. The samurai (warrior class) had the choice to either give up military service or become daimyos (feudal lords). It was this social system that eventually led to peasant uprisings and samurai unrest against the feudal lords.

The economy of the Tokugawa shogunate from the 1680s to the early 1700s placed an emphasis on agricultural production leading to considerable growth. The expansion of manufacture and commerce contributed to the development of urban centres such as Edo, Osaka , and Kyoto. Japan also produced fine silk, cotton fabrics, porcelain, and paper which gave rise to trade. The increase of mercantile activity led to the rise of a merchant class in Japan. However, while merchants and tradesmen prospered, the daimyos and samurai faced financial difficulties. Several attempts were made for financial reforms in the late 18^th and 19^th century but the samurai (warrior class) continued to face financial difficulties. This coupled with the Western encroachment by European and Western powers who wanted to trade with Japan beginning with the expedition of Commodore Matthew Perry of USA in the 19^th century contributed to peasant rebellions and samurai uprisings in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate.

A series of unequal treaties beginning with the treaty of Kanagawa which opened the ports of Japan to America led to the Meiji Restoration of 1868 in which two anti-Tokugawa clans of the samurai class joined forces to overthrow the shogunate and in 1868 the Meiji restoration proclaimed an imperial restoration in the name of the young emperor Meiji who was only 14 years old. During the Meiji period Japan prospered from being an isolated nation to one of the world’s industrialized nations along with Britain, USA, Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The country experienced important social, economic and political changes with the abolition of the feudal system and the acceptance of a cabinet system of government. Japan also opened up to Western influence and trade and also witnessed the build-up of military strength leading to Japan’s rise as a world power.

Beginning in the 1890s Japan embarked on a process of rapid industrialization, modernization, and expansion. In 1894-95 Japan fought a war against China over the control of Korea and occupied Taiwan. In 1902 Japan signed an alliance with Britain and in 1904-5 Japan went to war against Russia and in the process annexed Korea in its empire. During the First world war, Japan was allied with USA and Britain and was hopeful of territorial gains at the Versailles peace conference in 1919. However, Japan was met with opposition from America. The failure of Japan coupled with economic depression led to public frustration with the political leadership in Japan after First world war. The military began to push for Japanese expansionism and imperialism in Asia just as Italy and Germany were doing in Europe.

Taking pretext of The Manchurian incident of 1931 the Japanese army conquered Manchuria in China and established a puppet government. Meanwhile, the imperial Japanese army consolidated its control over the political system and most political parties were abolished in Japan. Japan’s ambitions grew increasingly bold and it eventually led to the outbreak of the Second Sino Japanese war in 1937. The USA opposed Japan’s invasion of China and imposed economic sanctions on Japan. Japan responded by making an alliance with Germany and Italy known as the Tripartite pact in 1940 worsening its relations with the USA. In December 1941 Japan bombed the US naval base atPearlHarbour in retaliation to these economic sanctions and went to war against America. In the initial stages of the war, Japan won victory after victory but after 1942 Japan suffered military reversals at the hand of the Allies. By 1945 Japan had all but lost the war against America and in August 1945 with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by America Japan was defeated by the Allied powers.

After the Second world war, Japan experienced rapid political and social transformation under the Allied occupation of Japan by General Douglas MacArthur. The occupation decentralized power in Japan by eliminating the Zaibatsu and in the process transferring the ownership of agricultural land to tenant farmers. Japan was demilitarized and democratized. The Japanese military was disarmed and its colonies were granted independence. The international military tribunal of the Far East was established to punish war criminals and Japan’s new constitution came in to force in 1947 which guaranteed civil liberties, women’s suffrage and labour rights. The San Francisco Peace treaty was signed between Japan and USA in 1951 which normalized relations between USA and Japan.

Japan witnessed rapid economic growth after the Second world war and by the 1950s and 60s, it had the world’s most developed economy. The reasons behind Japan’s post-war economic growth included technology and quality control techniques, close economic relations with the USA and participation of the private sector in running small businesses. Life expectancy rose and Japan’s population rose to 123 million in 1990.Women were granted the right to vote and currently, Japan is the most advanced economy in the world. In 2011 Japan suffered the most devastating earthquake and the resulting tsunami led to the damage of nuclear facilities in Fukushima.

Economy of medieval India

The economy of medieval India begins with the coming of Muslims to India in the early 13^th century. Before discussing the economic history of medieval India, it is essential to have a glimpse of the economy of ancient and early medieval India in the post Gupta period. From the fifth century AD, the practice of land grants became frequent. The Brahmanas were granted villages free from taxes that were collected by the king from the villages. The beneficiaries of this land grants were given the right to govern the people in the donated villages. Till the fifth century, the ruler retained the rights to these land grants, and the Brahmanas not only collected taxes from the peasants and artisans but also maintained law and order in the villages granted to them. Thus, the power of the king was heavily undermined from the end of the Gupta period.

Especially in the post Gupta period the agrarian economy underwent significant changes. Landed beneficiaries could neither cultivate land nor own it. The monasteries and Brahmanas who were the beneficiaries of these land grants hired peasants and slaves to work on these lands. Eventually, a landed aristocracy came to dominate the economy of ancient and early medieval India at the expense of the king. Thus, royal power was eroded and historians have come to use the term Indian feudalism in the context of these land grants.

With the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate the land revenue policy underwent considerable reforms. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji major land, agrarian and fiscal reforms were introduced in north India. Different categories of land existed during the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. The first was Iqta and for administration and land revenue collection, the state was divided into tracts called iqtas under iqtadars or muqtis. An iqta holder collected revenue from the land and remitted the balance to the central government. The iqtadars system as a means of collecting tax and distribution of revenues to the ruling class. The second category of land was khalisa or the royal land. This type of land was under the control of the government.

Alauddin Khalji levied different taxes on lands such as kharaj, charai, and ghari. The whole land was measured and a fixed portion of the state was assessed on the basis of these measurements. In addition to these, the strength of middlemen or khuts, muqaddams, and choudharies was considerably weakened, and thus the produce directly went from the farmers to the state. The revenue administration established by Alauddin Khalji was continued by his successors. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty fixed the share of state at 1/10^th of the total produce in contrast to Alauddin’s 50 percent. Muhammad bin Tughlaq made several changes in the revenue administration. He ordered the compilation of a register of the expenditure and income of the sultanate and introduced a uniform system of land revenue. He established a department of agriculture called Diwan-i-kohi with the intention of bringing more land under cultivation. Firoz Shah Tughlaq provided loans to the farmers and encouraged irrigation. He had got dug four canals for the purpose of irrigation and increased the salaries of the revenue officers so that the peasants are not harassed by the revenue officials. Firoz Shah introduced four taxes i.e. The Zakat, Jaziya, Khiraj, and Khamo.Khiraj was the land tax, Khams means 1/5^th of the booty captured during wars, Zakat a   tax on Muslims for religious purposes and Jaziya a tax levied on Hindus.

With the beginning of the Mughal rule in the 16^th century the economy of medieval India underwent significant changes. Babur and Humayun continued to follow the land and revenue administration of the Delhi Sultanate. However, it was Akbar who is credited with completely reorganizing the land revenue system. Akbar introduced the Zabti system and under this system, the cultivable lands were measured. After the measurement of the land, the state’s share was assessed on the basis of the produce of the land. The land was classified into four categories Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar.

Polaj was the first category of land which was readily cultivable. Throughout the season it had some crop ready. The second land was Parauti which was fallow land, Chachar was the third category of land which had to be left for three or four years to regain fertility and the fourth category of land was Banjar or barren land. The state share was calculated on the basis of these three grades of land and their average was the share of the state. The state share was 1/3^rd of the total produce and the share was paid either in cash or kind though the former was preferred.

Another aspect of The Mughal empire was the jagirdari system. The jagirdari system in the Mughal empire was a system in which the jagirdars or nobles were granted jagirs (landed estates) in lieu of their services to the emperor. The jagirdars and the zamindars formed the backbone of the Mughal empire and they were paid in cash or kind. However, in the late 17^th century during the reign of Aurangzeb the jagirdari crisis eventually led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire as there was not enough land for the jagirdars which led to the jagirdars forming their own independent states.

Trade and commerce also played an important role in the economy of medieval India as intra-regional ,inter-regional and external trade contributed to the economy of medieval India.Agra,Burhanpur, Aurangabad, Delhi , and Lahore were the centres of overland trade between India and Central Asia whereas seaborne trade was conducted between Surat,Cambay, Bharuch, and Arabia. North India imported luxury items and exported indigo and food grains. Silk, spices, and various other items were exported by India to other countries. The Bengal Subah alone accounted for over 50% to 80% of the exports and imports of India. By far the most important development in the economic history of medieval India was Hundis (Bills of exchange) as it amounted to cashless transactions in the Mughal empire.

With the beginning of the 17^th century the Europeans came to dominate the Indian trade as various European powers such as Portuguese, British, Dutch, and French established their factories and posts on the coastal cities of India. The Banjaras emerged as the most dominant class of traders in the economy of medieval India. Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the banjaras for the transportation of grain to the city markets. Mughal emperor Jahangir mentions the banjaras as carrying grains on their bullocks and transporting them to the cities. It can be summed up that the economy of medieval India was one of prosperity and growth until the advent of the British rule in India.

Book Review

Hi Everyone,

Book Review

Title:  India's ancient past

Author: R. S. Sharma

Review:

The book begins with the approaches of various historians towards the writing of ancient Indian history. It then discusses about the nature of sources which helps in constructing ancient Indian history. It further throws light on the prehistory of India, the Indus Valley civilization, the origin of the Indo-Aryans, the geographical background, the linguistic groups, the origins of Jainism and Buddhism.  It also further explains the beginning and formation of Mahajanapadas, the rise of the Magadha kingdom, and the Iranian and Macedonian invasions.

The period of the Mauryas, Central Asian countries, Satvahanas, Guptas, and the rule of Harshavardhana is also elaborated. The author also discusses the varna system, urbanization, commerce and trade, development in science and philosophy, and the cultural legacy of ancient India.

The author also analyzes the process of transition from ancient to medieval India.

The author was a renowned scholar of ancient India and the book will be helpful for students preparing for competitive exams and students of history.

Although, I would have given the rating of 4. But the pages not being in sequence makes it very complicated to read.

Rating: 3.5/5

Note: The book reviews are my personal and not sponsored.

Marriage customs in ancient India

Marriage customs in ancient India were laid down by the religious texts. The Shastras prescribed marriage as a Samskar for women. Marriage was regarded as necessary to continue the family line and after marriage, the woman acquired the status of ardhangani(wifehood) and grahlaxmi. The Hindu law stressed a marriage in which a bride adorned with ornaments is married to a suitable bridegroom before the nuptial fire. However, there were deviations in the forms of marriage and eight types of marriages were recognized in ancient India. Thus, attitudes towards marriage in ancient India changed with the prevailing circumstances and conditions.

In the Vedic period marriage was seen as necessary for the desire of offspring and sons were particularly favored over daughters. The necessity of sons was prayed for along with cattle and land but there was no desire for daughters. The society in ancient India was patriarchal and the son alone had the right to perform the funeral rites for his father and continue the family line. A woman who could not bear a son was looked down upon. The marriage ceremony in ancient India commenced with the bridegroom holding the hand of the bride and leading her around the fire. These acts were important in a marriage and the bridegroom became the husband and the bride his wife(Patni).

There was considerable freedom on the young persons in the selection of their future husband or wife and the consent of parents or brother was not necessary. The Rigveda mentions the newly married wife taking up the most respectable position in her new household and she had considerable authority over her husband’s brother, father, and unmarried sister. The hymns in Rigveda also mentions the practice of having a childless widow to cohabit with her brother in law until the birth of a son. Widow remarriage was permitted under certain circumstances in ancient India. However, with the passage of time there were many restrictions placed in marriages. The Shatapatha Brahmana has a certain set of rules regarding marriage in ancient India. Marriage within the gotra and outside the gotra were more frequent. Brothers and sisters were not allowed to marry before their elder brother or sister got married.

Widow remarriage was allowed and polygamy also existed in ancient India. The first wife enjoyed all the privileges of a wife in religion and society but in Yajnavalkya the two wives enjoyed equal rights. Conjugal morality was generally high and infidelity on the part of the wife was unknown. The prevalence of dowry in marriages existed in ancient India. The marriage ceremony described in the Rigveda and emphasized in the Atharvaveda stressed that the bridegroom had to mount a stone on the bride before grasping her hand. The ideal family life was stressed in which the newly married wife becomes the mistress of her husband’s home is mentioned in the Rigveda. The term Patni(wife) mentioned in the Brahmanas indicates the wife’s equal share in the religious and social life of her husband while the term Jaya indicates only her conjugal position. The practice of sati did not exist during the early Vedic period of ancient India.

The woman held an honorable position in the household and marriages in ancient India were accompanied by song and dance. However, the presence of a widow was deemed undesirable in marriage. The dharma sutras speak of about the widow’s right in the property of her husband and hence the practice of sati in ancient India can be ruled out. The Vasishta Dharma sutras mention about widow remarriage under certain circumstances so widow remarriage was not strictly prohibited. The Baudhayana Dharma sutra speaks about a barren woman who could not bear children should be abandoned. So, the abandonment of the wife was allowed but not divorce. The Dharma sutras also agree that a woman on reaching puberty should be given in marriage at a proper time by her father but she can also choose her own husband after waiting for three years or months. The later religious texts advocated that men are the masters of women, their father protects them in childhood, their husbands in youthhood, and sons in old age.

During the epic period, major changes took place in the institution of marriage. Marriage between members of the same caste was allowed however marriage with a girl of the same gotra was prohibited. The chastity of women has also emphasized especially physical chastity and women had to obey her husband. The marriageable age was lowered and unmarried women were looked down upon. The growing importance of physical chastity gradually led to the discouragement of widow remarriage, divorce, and the growing practice of sati. Kautilya allows the remarriage of a woman whose husband has died, has gone abroad, or had become an ascetic. However, the Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya prohibited widow remarriage. The Agni Purana and the Parasara Smriti recognizes that a woman is allowed to remarry in the lifetime of her husband if he is lost, is impotent, or is an outcaste.

Divorce was generally recognized in ancient India. Kautilya allowed divorce to both men and women while Manu was not in favor of divorce for women. Manu allowed divorce for wife by the husband but not for a husband by wife. A woman who is unable to bear a son to her husband can be abandoned by her husband. The practice of sati was prevalent and, in the Mahabharata, there are several instances of women burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands,

The caste system had become well established during this period and marriages were based on caste. Medatithi allowed inter-caste marriage between a Brahmana and a Kshatriya while marriage between a Brahmana and a sudra woman was prohibited. The Narada Purana proclaims that a marriage of twice-born men with other castes is prohibited in Kaliyuga.The wife was expected to be obedient and faithful to her husband to the point of shampooing her husband’s feet. The husband also had the right to beat his wife on her back with a rope. But this did not imply actual beating and it was only used as a corrective measure.

The Great African kingdoms and civilizations

Africa is known as the cradle of human civilization and it was in Africa that the early humans originated and later, they spread out through the whole world. From her fertile soils’ civilizations originated in Africa and later they developed kingdoms and empires including the Egyptian civilization, Aksumite empire, The kingdom of Ghana, The Mali empire, The Songhai Empire, the Ethiopian kingdom, the kingdom of Kongo, and the Benin empire. Each of these civilizations and empires developed independently of each other and they influenced the history of the African continent. There were many African kingdoms and empires spread out through the whole of Africa before its colonization by Europe. Below is a list of the African kingdoms and civilizations.

The Egyptian civilization

Egyptian civilization was the world’s most advanced civilization and it existed in Egypt as an independent civilization. During the height of the Egyptian civilization the Pyramids were built and they developed an advanced trade network with excellence in art, architecture, and religion. Kings and queens such as Akhenaton, Nefertiti, Hatshepsut and Tutankhamun wielded royal power and they patronized the construction of the Great pyramids. The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom(2686-2181BCE) built the Great Pyramid of Giza and they waged successful military campaigns against their rivals. The economy of the Egyptian civilization was sustained by the Nile river as it provided fertile soil and contributed to an agricultural economy. Egypt traded with its neighboring kingdoms such as the land of Punt, Canaan, and Byblos.

The social stratification of the Egyptian civilization consisted of farmers making up the bulk of the population. Artists and craftsmen belonged to a higher status than the farmers and the nobility and the king constituted the highest class in Egyptian society. In writing the Egyptian hieroglyphs dating from 3000BCE consists of hundreds of symbols and it was used as a formal script on stone monuments and tombs. In day to day writing the Egyptian scribes developed a cursive form of writing called hieratic. In architecture, the Egyptians built the Great pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were patronized by the state and it carried a religious and commemorative meaning but also symbolized the power of the Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were great builders and the architects' employed slaves in the construction of their buildings. In art the Narmer palette is the most striking specimen of Egyptian art and the ancient Egyptian artists and craftsmen used stone for carving statues and reliefs. Pharaohs used reliefs for the purpose of recording victories in battle, religious scenes, and royal decrees.

The Aksumite empire(3^rd century-7^th century)

The kingdom of Aksum or Axum is one of the oldest kingdoms in the African continent and it was spread across Ethiopia, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Somalia, Egypt, and Djibouti. The Aksumite empire played an important role in the trade routes between India and Rome and they constructed several stelae. One of them the Obelisk of Axum is approximately 1700 years old and is found in present-day Ethiopia. The Aksumite empire followed a polytheistic religion before its conversion to Christianity. The Aksumite Empire began to decline in the mid-6^th century and by the early 7^th century the empire came to an end with the arrival of Islam in Africa.

The Ghana Empire(300AD-1100AD)

The Ghana empire also known as Wagadou was located in West Africa which today comprises the countries of Mauritania, Mali, and Senegal. The empire thrived on the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. Koumbi Saleh was the biggest city of the Ghana empire and it is estimated that the city had a population of between 15000 and 20000 people. The empire specialized in the trade of gold and kola nuts. The economy of the Ghana empire was based on farming and trade. The trans-Saharan trade contributed to the economy of the Ghana empire. Ghana empire became a vassal of the Mali Empire and was eventually conquered by it.

The Mali empire (1235-1670)

The largest empire in West Africa the Mali empire was established by Sundiata Keita and was famous for the wealth of its rulers. The Mali empire greatly influenced the laws, customs, and languages of West Africa. In the 13^th century, the Mali empire came to incorporate Ghana empire and the conquest of Sosso gave it access to the trans-Saharan trade. After the death of Sundiata Keita in 1255 the Mali kings assumed the title Mansa.Mansa Musa was the greatest ruler of the Mali empire, The empire prospered in the 14^th, and 15^th century but in the 16^th  and the17^th century the Songhai empire brought the Mali empire to an end after which it disintegrated and ceased to exist.

The Songhai Empire(14^th-16^th century)

The Songhai empire of Songhay was an empire that came to rule the western Sahel region in the 15^th and 16^th centuries. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the Songhai empire. Other important cities were Timbuktu and Djenne.In the beginning, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty and later it came to be ruled by the Askia dynasty. The empire went in to decline in the 16^th century and later in the battle of Tondibi the Moroccans destroyed the Songhai empire. The economy of the Songhai empire was centered on the clan system and the most important occupations were metalworking, fishery, and carpenters. The state religion was Islam and Timbuktu was the most prosperous city in the Songhai kingdom.

The Ethiopian kingdom (1137-1975)

The Ethiopian kingdom or the Abyssinian kingdom which began in the Middle Ages and existed through the Cold war is the longest-lasting kingdom in Africa. It successfully resisted attempts by the Europeans to encroach on its territory. In the first Italo-Ethiopian war the Ethiopian empire defeated the Italian empire but in the second Italo Ethiopian war in 1935 it was conquered by the Italian empire. It existed till 1974 when a military junta abolished the monarchy.

The Kingdom of Kongo (1390-1914)

Located in central Africa comprising the countries of present-day Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo and Gabon the Kingdom of Kongo existed from 1390 to 1859. However from 1859 following the Scramble for Africa by European powers the country became a vassal of Portugal. Its military and political power dominated central Africa for many centuries. The society of the kingdom of Kongo was a quasi-feudal society and its economy was driven by textiles, pottery, copper, and ivory.

The kingdom of Benin (1180-1897)

The kingdom of Benin in modern Nigeria was the oldest and the most advanced state in West Africa until it was conquered by the British Empire. The artisans and craftsmen sculpted statues from ivory, iron, and bronze. Its trading partners were Portugal with which they traded palm oil, pepper, and ivory. The Benin empire existed through the 16th and 17^th centuries but in the late 18^th and 19^th century the British came to know of the wealth and fame of Benin through its explorers and finally in the 19^th century the Benin empire was eventually annexed by the British empire.

The Maravi empire

The Maravi empire centered in present-day Malawi were ironworkers and the name of the empire is possibly derived from the sight of many brick kilns lighting up the night sky. The Maravi empire was founded by the Amaravi people in the late 15^th century and they migrated to Malawi from the Republic of Congo. The economy of the Maravi empire was based on agriculture and in the 16^th century the Maravis came in to contact with the Europeans. Initially the Portuguese and later the British annexed the Maravi empire.

The European wars of religion

The European wars of religion were a sequence of conflicts which occurred in Europe in the 16^th,17^th and the early 18^th century. The war began in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation (1517) in Germany leading to the various European states allying itself with the Catholic and Protestant countries of Europe. The conflicts eventually led to the Thirty Years War in Europe in which Catholic France was supported by Protestant forces against the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. The wars finally came to an end with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia (1648).

The causes of the conflict were the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany by Martin Luther in 1517. In response to this, the Catholic church initiated the Counter Reformation in 1545. In 1524-25 the German peasants rose in revolt in the southern and western parts of Germany against Martin Luther’s Protestantism. However, the revolt was crushed by Luther and it ended with the killing of peasants by Lutheran and Catholic armies. After the peasants’ war, the Anabaptists led a large-scale revolt in Muntzer in Germany in 1534-35 in which the Protestants deposed the ruling bishop and went on to establish their own kingdom led by Jan of Leiden proclaiming Protestantism in Germany and condemned the Catholic church. However, he was later killed along with his followers for defying the Roman Catholic church.

In Germany Martin Luther continued to propagate Lutheranism and established a defensive alliance called the League of Schmalkalden against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The League represented the interests of the Lutherans and due to disagreements over religious lines in  1546 war broke out between the emperor and the Schmalkalden League. The Schmalkaldic war lasted until 1547 in which Charles V won a victory at the Battle of Muhlberg which led to the signing of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. The peace agreed on a principle that stated that the religion of each territory in the Holy Roman Empire would be determined by its ruler. It is famously summed up in Latin as’ cuius regio, eius religio’ (Whose reign, that religion). The prince would pick his confession, Protestant or Catholic, and that would be the official religion for his people.

In France, The French wars of religion occurred due to the disputes about the position of the Reformed minority (Huguenots) and between Catholic France which led to mass killings of Huguenots by Catholic mobs in France. About 5000 Huguenots perished in the war and finally, at the end of the conflict the Protestant king Henry issued the Edict of Nantes which granted the Huguenots substantial rights and freedoms.

The European wars of religion eventually led to the Thirty Years war (1618-1648) which marked the culmination of the conflict between the Protestants and Catholics. The major part of the war took place in Germany and many European countries sided with the Protestants against the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. It was also fought over territory as Protestant France fearful of the Catholic Habsburg domination of Spain in Europe fought against Spain leading to war between France and Spain. External powers such as Denmark and Sweden also fought on the Protestant side. The war changed the political and religious map of Europe and it came to an end by the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Karl Marx and Communism

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was one of the most influential political philosophers who propounded the ideology and theory of communism. His radical ideas on class struggle and historical materialism have changed and guided many revolutions. His ideologies of communism and Marxism have inspired the foundation of many communist regimes.

Karl Marx was born in Trier in 1818 in Germany and his parents were of Jewish ancestry. But due to contemporary laws prohibiting Jews,his father a lawyer converted to Christianity. Initially, Karl Marx was also a Christian but later he became an atheist. Marx studied law in Bonn and Berlin and then he obtained his doctorate in Philosophy. After completing his doctorate in 1841 Marx began looking for an academic job but his radical ideas and views were not accepted. He turned to journalism and rapidly involved himself in political and social issues. Karl Marx met Friedrich Engels and it was at this point in time that Marx began to consider communist theory.

Karl Marx wrote and published many books like the Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital, and the German ideology. The Communist Manifesto jointly written with Engels is his most widely read work.’ The German ideology ‘also co-authored with Engels in 1845 is an outline of the class struggle and his theory of history. The Das Kapital criticizes the capitalist mode of production and offers views on historical materialism and the dictatorship of the proletariat.

In the 19^th century a series of republican revolts had taken place in Italy, Germany, France and the Austrian empire against the European monarchies. Marx’s ideas of communism and his revolutionary ideas inspired these revolutions. Due to his radical political beliefs and his association with these revolutions, Marx was exiled and he went to London. Marx believed in the ideology of the working classes i.e. The proletariat who will one day rise up against the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and overthrow the capitalist system and replace it with communism.

After this supposed revolution which Marx assumed, in the beginning, a violent phase known as the dictatorship of the proletariat would start in which the working classes would own the means of production and all modes of production such as land, bank, and factories would be collectively owned. Marx was deeply disturbed by the concentration of wealth in the hands of the capitalist class. Marx saw capitalism as playing a dominant role in eliminating feudalism which was the social system in medieval Europe.

In history, Marx advocated the theory of historical materialism in which he argues history has been shaped by material conditions rather than ideals. Historical materialism asserts that the modes of production of the material conditions of a society are the main indicator by which a society is organized. Marx was of the view that from the beginning of human civilization history has been determined by class struggles and that the economic modes of production which include primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, and capitalism were based on the relationship between the ruling class and a class of slaves. For example, feudalism was based on the relation between nobles and serfs. In religion, Marx was of the view that religion is the opium of the masses and the sigh of the oppressed.It means that oppressed people turn to religion and that all modern religions are the product of exploitation by the bourgeoisie class(capitalists). Karl Marx did not believe in any religion and identified himself as an atheist.

The Marxist ideology of communism gave inspiration to the Russian revolution of 1917 in which the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin overthrew the autocratic Tsarist regime and replaced it with the  Soviet Union. Karl Marx’s principles of communism have also guided the People’s Republic of China which is a communist nation. Mao Zedong in particular believed in the ideology of the working classes and he was deeply influenced by Karl Marx.

Today Karl Marx remains the most prominent of all political thinkers and his criticism of capitalism and its eventual replacement with communism has become the focal point of most political discussions. His views on class struggle and revolution of the working classes have inspired many revolutions.

The Architecture of Classical civilizations

Classical civilization is the period of history in which architecture evolved and developed during the Greek and Roman periods of classical antiquity. It is a style of architecture in which initially the Greek and later the Greek and the Roman elements fused together to produce buildings such as the Parthenon at Athens, Temple of Hephaestos,the temple of Aphaia at Greece and the Colosseum in Rome, aqueducts in Spain, the Roman temples in France and Roman theaters in Greece.

During the period of the Greek civilization Greek architects constructed some of the finest and most striking buildings and some of their buildings such as temples and theatres became a feature of Greek towns and cities. The Greek concern with simplicity, perspective and harmony in architecture provided the influence for the later Roman architecture. Classical Greek architecture consists of five orders-Doric, Corinthian, Ionic, Tuscan and composite. The Greek architects created the first three and used a combination of latter two to create certain style of column eventually replacing the wooden pillars into the Doric influences. It was a vertical fluted column shaft which was thinner at its top with no base and a simple capital below a square abacus.

The Corinthian order which was invented in Athens in the 5^th century BCE is similar to the Ionic but topped by decorative capital of stylized symbols .The Ionic order with its origins in mid-6^th century BCE in Asia Minor added a base and volute to a straighter, slimmer column. The initial building material was wood which was later replaced by marble. In the Greek temple architecture stone and marble came to be used and certain decorative features of stone and decorative elements have been used displaying the skills of the architects.

The Parthenon of Athens is famous for its Doric and Ionic temples and it was built in the 5^th century BCE at Acropolis to house the statue of Greek goddess Athena and to display the glory of Athens to the world. Other examples of Greek architecture are the gigantic temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion and the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The temples display the sophisticated craftsmanship and use of elaborate symbolisms in their construction.

Another important achievement was the Greek amphitheatre with large courts used for the purpose of religious processions and bull fighting sports. It was an open air and semi-circular arrangement of rows with monumental arches. Theatres were widely used for games and musical competitions.

After the conquest of Greece by the Romans they carried the legacy of the Greeks in their architecture, but they also adopted new architectural techniques and constructed buildings such as the Aqueducts, Roman baths, amphitheatre, granary and basilica. The famous examples of Roman architecture are the Pantheon at Rome, the aqueducts in Spain, the baths of Caracalla in Rome, the Roman amphitheatre at Verona and the Roman temples in France.

In architecture the Romans preferred monolithic columns rather than the Greek method of using several columns stacked on top of each other. Columns also were made to form a part of the wall and function as decorative elements. The best example of this is the Roman Colosseum in Rome. Greek influence is also visible in Roman buildings and especially in the beginning of the Roman republic the Greek style of architecture was favoured.The use of marble and mortar was the primary building material in the Roman buildings. Concrete rubble was also used as a filler material. The roofs of Roman buildings were made of columns of bricks and stucco was also used for the ornamentation and decorative elements in buildings. The Roman aqueducts and bridges were massive structures which were used as a means of conveyance to carry fresh water to the Roman cities. The best example of a Roman aqueduct is at Taracco in Spain. It is constructed of a flat wooden superstructure and it still survives today.

The Roman baths are the finest example of Roman architecture and there is considerable use of arches, domes, buttresses and vaults. These baths were built symmetrically and consisted of cold and hot rooms, fountains and underfloor heating. The exterior of these baths was plain but internally they were magnificent with the lavish use of mosaics, columns and marble statues. The best example of a Roman bath is the baths of Caracalla in Rome.The Romans also built amphitheatres and theatres and their construction is characterised by semi-circular arrangement of rows. The Colosseum is the largest of all Roman amphitheatres. Apart from this the Romans also constructed military structures like the Antonine and Hadrian’s wall. The width of Roman walls varied tremendously from 18cm thinness to 6m thickness.

It can be said that the Greek and the Roman architecture has stood the passage of time and they were magnificent builders. By using a wide range of materials like brick, mortar, marble and stone they mastered architecture and turned it in to an art. The displayed their power and wealth to the world by building such edifices. The amphitheatre and basilica constructed by the Greeks and Romans provided an inspiration for the later Western architecture in the Middle Ages.

The Mughal empire and Akbar

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605) was the greatest of the Mughal emperors. He is considered as the architect of the Mughal empire in India and it was during his reign that the Mughal empire covered almost the whole of India from Afghanistan in the north to the river Godavari in the south. Born on 15^th October 1542 in Sindh and who became the king at the age of 14 before assuming imperial power Akbar is known in history for his religious tolerance and as a patron of the arts, architecture and for his introduction of the Mansabdari system of administration in the Mughal empire.

The Mughal empire had been established by Akbar’s grandfather Babur by defeating the last sultan of the Delhi Sultanate Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.After Babur’s death in 1530 his son Humayun became the next Mughal emperor. But he failed to maintain the conquests of his father and was driven in to exile by Sher Shah Suri of the Sur dynasty. After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545 Humayun took advantage of the weakness of the Sur empire and managed to regain power in 1555 but ruled only for a few months before he died in 1556.Humayun’s confidant Bairam Khan helped Akbar to gain the throne at the age of 14 and acted as his regent. But the kingdom which Akbar inherited from his father Humayun was only confined to Punjab and the Afghans were still challenging the Mughals in north India.

The Afghan general Hemu had captured Gwalior and Agra and had defeated Akbar’s forces in the Battle of Delhi in October 1556.However at the Second Battle of Panipat fought on 5^th November 1556 the Mughal forces led by Bairam Khan and Akbar defeated Hemu which eventually paved the way for the reestablishment of Mughal rule in India. After the Second Battle of Panipat Akbar occupied Delhi, Agra and Gwalior. Akbar furthered his conquests to include Kabul, Kashmir, Sindh, Baluchistan and Kandahar in northern India. Gujarat, Bengal and Orissa were also annexed to the Mughal empire. Akbar turned his attention towards the south and conquered Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. However, it was the kingdom of Mewar which resisted against the Mughals. The Battle of Haldighati fought in 1576 between Maharana Pratap of Mewar and the Mughals finally led to the annexation of Mewar by Akbar.

Akbar’s success in maintaining his empire is attributed to his tolerant religious policies and his appointment of Rajputs in his administration. Through diplomacy and matrimonial alliances Akbar had won the confidence of the Rajputs and this was visible in his appointment of Rajputs to top administrative posts. He did not force Islam on the majority Hindu population of India, and he was the first Muslim ruler to have abolished jazia (poll tax on non-Muslims) in the year 1579.

In religion Akbar was liberal and he participated in the festivals of other faiths and in 1575 in Fatehpur Sikri he built a temple(Ibadat Khana) where he held frequent discussions with people of other faiths including Hindus,Zoroastrians,Christians,yogis and other sects.He also allowed the Jesuits to build a church at Agra and banned the slaughter of cattle due to his respect for Hindu customs.

Akbar also started the Sulh-i-Kul which in Arabic means peace with all. The Din-i-Ilahi founded by Akbar in 1582 had its origin in the Sulh-i-kul and it combined and promoted interfaith dialogue and equal treatment for all regardless of religious beliefs. The Din-i-Ilahi combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship. Its ideas were an amalgamation of different religious beliefs.

The Infallibility Decree issued by Akbar in 1579 weakened the power of the Ulemas and the Mullahs. According to this decree Akbar became the supreme arbiter in religious and civil affairs. Akbar himself started the practice of reading Khutba from the Fatehpuri mosque in Agra.

In administration the Mansabdari system was introduced by Akbar. The term mansab stands for position, status or rank and it was the hierarchy of mansabdars which constituted an important part in the Mughal administration. The mansabdars belonged to the nobility and under this system the mansabdars or nobles were granted the rights to hold a jagir which means revenue assignments for their services rendered and these nobles were in the direct control of the king. Mansabdars were either paid in cash(naqad) or in the form of assignments of land(jagir)out of which they had the right for the collection of land revenue and other taxes through an authority appointed by the emperor.

Thus the Mansabdari system and the jagirdari system became an integral part of the Mughal dministration.The mansab or rank was designated by dual representation one by personal rank(zat) and the other by cavalry rank(sawar).The mansabdars  were given both ranks of zat and sawar and the emperor was the sole authority that decreased, resumed and conferred the mansab.

In arts Akbar had navratnas or Nine gems in his court which were Tansen, Birbal, Abul Fazal, Raja Todarmal, Shaikh Faizi, Mulla Do Piyaza, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Raja Man Singh and Fakir Azao Din. Akbar also ordered the translation of Hindu scriptures into Persian. Sanskrit, Hindi and Persian received royal patronage during the reign of Akbar.In architecture Akbar built the Agra fort and the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. The tomb of Humayun is another architectural masterpiece built during the reign of Akbar. The Agra fort served as the residence of the Mughal emperors till 1638 when the capital of the Mughals was shifted from Agra to Delhi by Shah Jahan.

The History of feminism in the USA

Feminism is a movement which seeks to gain equal political, social, economic and cultural equality for women. Historically from ancient Greece to the modern world there has been a fight for equality by women and feminism has been shaped by these ideals. In the USA feminism can been divided in to three phases-first wave feminism which deals with property rights and the right to vote, second wave feminism with its focus on equality and anti-discrimination and the Third wave of feminism  beginning in the 1990s in opposition to the perceived domination of white, straight women.

In ancient Greece the Greek philosopher Plato was the first advocate of women’s rights and he held that they should be given the right to govern a state. However, Plato’s advocacy of women’s rights was not accepted in those times. In the Roman empire women’s rights were also restricted. This continued in the Middle Ages in Europe when women protested  against misogyny and their submissive roles. It was during the Enlightenment writers and philosophers like Margaret Cavendish argued for greater equality for women.

When America got its independence on 4^th July 1776 from Britain the cause for women’s equality had begun. In the 19^th century after the abolition of slavery in the American Civil war various women’s groups started pushing for greater participation of women in the public sphere. It was at this point that the first wave of feminism had begun in America. At the 1848 Seneca Falls convention abolitionists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott demanded the right to vote.

The First wave of feminism which demanded property rights and suffrage dominated the feminist thought for several decades. However, it was the 19^th amendment which marked a turning point in the lives of American women, and it was due to this amendment that they finally got the right to vote. Women began to enter the workplace in large numbers following the Great depression of 1930 as many male breadwinners lost their jobs forcing women to work in low paying jobs.In the Second World war women played an important role in the military and found work in industries which were previously only reserved for men. The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s also led to women demanding greater participation in the workforce with equal pay for equal work. Eventually the Equal Pay Act of 1963 signed by President John Kennedy helped in eradicating gender discrimination at workplace.

The Second wave of feminism which began in the 1970s started the debate on sexuality, reproductive rights, domestic violence and marital rape.Betty Friedan and Simone de Beauvoir were the prominent figures in this wave of feminism. It was in the Second wave of feminism that abortion became legalised in USA and marital rape was outlawed. The Second wave of feminism had its impact on other countries like Spain, Sweden, Netherlands, Israel, Turkey and Britain. The Second wave feminists viewed US popular culture as sexist and created their own pop culture to counter this.

The Third wave of feminism in the USA started in the early 1990s and advocated individualism and diversity and saw the emergence of new feminist theories such as sex positivity, vegetarian ecofeminism, transfeminism and postmodern feminism. A feminist subculture started in many American cities and it culminated with the sexual liberation of women in many countries around the world. Slutwalks were also the high points of this wave of feminism.

It can be said that the history of feminism in USA which started in the 19^th century and continues to this day has been one in which women have been able to achieve their rights. However, gender discrimination and the victimization of women continues in other parts of the world.

The Black Death in Europe

The Black death or the Bubonic plague was the greatest epidemic which hit Europe in the Middle Ages. It was a pandemic that killed up to 30% to 60% of the population of Europe. It started in 1347 and continued till 1351 in the 14^th century. The Black death originated in Central or East Asia. It travelled along the Silk Road from China to the Middle East, West Asia and the rest of Europe via the Italian peninsula.

The cause of the disease was most likely fleas which lived on the black rats and which got transmitted through merchant ships eventually spreading the disease throughout Europe. It affected the demographics of Europe and estimates place the population of Europe declined from 475 million to 350-375 million in the 14^th century.

The 13^th century Mongol conquest of China led to a decline in farming and combined with natural disasters and epidemics contributed to widespread famine in 1331 in Europe. In the Middle East the Muslim religious scholars believed that the disease was a martyrdom and mercy for believers, and it was a punishment for non-believers.

The main cause for the transmission of Bubonic plague was rodents which carried a strain of the bacterium Yersinia pestis.Plague was carried to Europe by the Genoese merchants of Italy in 1347.The Mongol army catapulted the infected corpses during the siege of Genoa in 1345-46.From Genoa the disease was carried by merchants to Sicily in Italy in 1347.From Italy the disease spread to France,Spain.In 1348 the disease was carried to Portugal,England,Germany,Scotland,Denmark and Netherlands. Eventually it spread to Russia.The disease also spread to West Asia and North Africa which led to population decline and a change in the economic and social structures. It spread by sea to Constantinople (Istanbul). By the summer of 1348 it reached Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. It also spread to Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Morocco.

The symptoms of the disease were a fever of 38-41-degree Celsius, aching joints, headaches, nausea and vomiting. Left untreated, the persons who contracted the bubonic plague died with in a span of 8 days. In acute conditions the fever became severe accompanied by vomiting of blood. Spots and rashes caused by flea bites were the other symptoms of plague.

The death toll caused by plague varied greatly. In cities with greater population there was a greater mortality rate and it killed 75 to 200 million people in Europe and Asia. There was also an economic and religious impact of the disease. The population decline caused by the disease led to a shortage of labour and an increase in wages. For example, due to the Black death in England labourers, craftsmen and artisans suffered a reduction in their real incomes due to rampant inflation.

The plague also had a religious impact as various groups were persecuted such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, lepers and pilgrims. Europeans also came to believe astrological forces and the poisoning of wells by Jews as the causes for the outbreak of the disease. There were attacks against the Jewish communities and in 1349 the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne cities of Germany were killed. Because of this many Jews fled to Poland. Many Europeans also believed that the epidemic was a punishment from God for their sins and could be eradicated by asking for God’s forgiveness. The demographic change caused by the disease