The European wars of religion

The European wars of religion were a sequence of conflicts which occurred in Europe in the 16^th,17^th and the early 18^th century. The war began in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation (1517) in Germany leading to the various European states allying itself with the Catholic and Protestant countries of Europe. The conflicts eventually led to the Thirty Years War in Europe in which Catholic France was supported by Protestant forces against the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. The wars finally came to an end with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia (1648).

The causes of the conflict were the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany by Martin Luther in 1517. In response to this, the Catholic church initiated the Counter Reformation in 1545. In 1524-25 the German peasants rose in revolt in the southern and western parts of Germany against Martin Luther’s Protestantism. However, the revolt was crushed by Luther and it ended with the killing of peasants by Lutheran and Catholic armies. After the peasants’ war, the Anabaptists led a large-scale revolt in Muntzer in Germany in 1534-35 in which the Protestants deposed the ruling bishop and went on to establish their own kingdom led by Jan of Leiden proclaiming Protestantism in Germany and condemned the Catholic church. However, he was later killed along with his followers for defying the Roman Catholic church.

In Germany Martin Luther continued to propagate Lutheranism and established a defensive alliance called the League of Schmalkalden against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The League represented the interests of the Lutherans and due to disagreements over religious lines in  1546 war broke out between the emperor and the Schmalkalden League. The Schmalkaldic war lasted until 1547 in which Charles V won a victory at the Battle of Muhlberg which led to the signing of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. The peace agreed on a principle that stated that the religion of each territory in the Holy Roman Empire would be determined by its ruler. It is famously summed up in Latin as’ cuius regio, eius religio’ (Whose reign, that religion). The prince would pick his confession, Protestant or Catholic, and that would be the official religion for his people.

In France, The French wars of religion occurred due to the disputes about the position of the Reformed minority (Huguenots) and between Catholic France which led to mass killings of Huguenots by Catholic mobs in France. About 5000 Huguenots perished in the war and finally, at the end of the conflict the Protestant king Henry issued the Edict of Nantes which granted the Huguenots substantial rights and freedoms.

The European wars of religion eventually led to the Thirty Years war (1618-1648) which marked the culmination of the conflict between the Protestants and Catholics. The major part of the war took place in Germany and many European countries sided with the Protestants against the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. It was also fought over territory as Protestant France fearful of the Catholic Habsburg domination of Spain in Europe fought against Spain leading to war between France and Spain. External powers such as Denmark and Sweden also fought on the Protestant side. The war changed the political and religious map of Europe and it came to an end by the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

The Black Death in Europe

The Black death or the Bubonic plague was the greatest epidemic which hit Europe in the Middle Ages. It was a pandemic that killed up to 30% to 60% of the population of Europe. It started in 1347 and continued till 1351 in the 14^th century. The Black death originated in Central or East Asia. It travelled along the Silk Road from China to the Middle East, West Asia and the rest of Europe via the Italian peninsula.

The cause of the disease was most likely fleas which lived on the black rats and which got transmitted through merchant ships eventually spreading the disease throughout Europe. It affected the demographics of Europe and estimates place the population of Europe declined from 475 million to 350-375 million in the 14^th century.

The 13^th century Mongol conquest of China led to a decline in farming and combined with natural disasters and epidemics contributed to widespread famine in 1331 in Europe. In the Middle East the Muslim religious scholars believed that the disease was a martyrdom and mercy for believers, and it was a punishment for non-believers.

The main cause for the transmission of Bubonic plague was rodents which carried a strain of the bacterium Yersinia pestis.Plague was carried to Europe by the Genoese merchants of Italy in 1347.The Mongol army catapulted the infected corpses during the siege of Genoa in 1345-46.From Genoa the disease was carried by merchants to Sicily in Italy in 1347.From Italy the disease spread to France,Spain.In 1348 the disease was carried to Portugal,England,Germany,Scotland,Denmark and Netherlands. Eventually it spread to Russia.The disease also spread to West Asia and North Africa which led to population decline and a change in the economic and social structures. It spread by sea to Constantinople (Istanbul). By the summer of 1348 it reached Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. It also spread to Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Morocco.

The symptoms of the disease were a fever of 38-41-degree Celsius, aching joints, headaches, nausea and vomiting. Left untreated, the persons who contracted the bubonic plague died with in a span of 8 days. In acute conditions the fever became severe accompanied by vomiting of blood. Spots and rashes caused by flea bites were the other symptoms of plague.

The death toll caused by plague varied greatly. In cities with greater population there was a greater mortality rate and it killed 75 to 200 million people in Europe and Asia. There was also an economic and religious impact of the disease. The population decline caused by the disease led to a shortage of labour and an increase in wages. For example, due to the Black death in England labourers, craftsmen and artisans suffered a reduction in their real incomes due to rampant inflation.

The plague also had a religious impact as various groups were persecuted such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, lepers and pilgrims. Europeans also came to believe astrological forces and the poisoning of wells by Jews as the causes for the outbreak of the disease. There were attacks against the Jewish communities and in 1349 the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne cities of Germany were killed. Because of this many Jews fled to Poland. Many Europeans also believed that the epidemic was a punishment from God for their sins and could be eradicated by asking for God’s forgiveness. The demographic change caused by the disease 

The Holocaust and Adolf Hitler

The First World war had led to the defeat of Germany by the Allied powers. After the war the victorious Allies led by Britain and USA forced Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace conference. The major decisions taken at the Paris Peace Conference imposed humiliating terms and conditions on Germany and the loss of German overseas territories. The humiliation and resentment eventually led to the rise of Nazism in Germany and was a contributing factor in the outbreak of Second World war in Europe.

The Weimar Republic was formed in Germany in the aftermath of First World war. It was a provisional government formed of members of the Social Democratic Party and the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany. But Germany suffered due to post war inflation and there was a decline in the standards of living. The Weimar republic failed to improve the economic and social conditions in Germany which led to strikes and protests. The Great Depression of 1929 further worsened the economic crisis in Germany and unemployment peaked in the 1930s.The German middle class became disillusioned with the Weimar republic and began to look for a new leadership.

By 1921 Adolf Hitler appeared on the scene. Through his propaganda and speeches, he condemned the Treaty of Versailles and assured the people of Germany that the former glory of Germany would be restored. Though initially he failed to take power but by the beginning of 1932 the Nazi party of Adolf Hitler became the largest political party. The Nazi party founded by Adolf Hitler was against democracy, communism and the Jews in Germany. Particularly Hitler had a hatred towards the Jews since he believed that they were responsible for Germany’s defeat in the First World war. At times he would also blame the Jews for his personal crisis.

By 1933 Adolf Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany and he began a systematic persecution and extermination of the Jews. Hitler believed in the Aryan race theory and he believed the Germans belonged to the Aryan race. The Aryan race theory held the Jews as inferior and the Germans as superior. It was on this basis that Hitler propagated the German nationalism and Lebensraum (living space) for the Germans.

With the beginning of the Second World war in Europe Hitler opted for the final solution known as the Holocaust with mass killings and Nazi concentration camps in the occupied areas of Europe. As many as six million Jews and others were exterminated for racial, political and ideological belief. In September 1939, gas chambers and ghettoes were built for the mass killing of Jews from the conquered countries of Europe.Hitler also dismissed non-Germans from official positions and embarked on a systematic persecution of the Jews, mentally disabled, intellectuals and communists.

The most famous of the Nazi concentration camp was Auschwitz because it was at Auschwitz alone more than 2 million people including Jews were put to death by poisonous gases. Even in other countries of Europe brutal killings of Jews amounted to large scale deportation of Jews to the Nazi concentration camps. The heaviest deportations took place during the summer and autumn of 1942 when more than 300,000 were deported. Those who survived died of starvation and diseases.

With the end of the Second World war in 1945 the Holocaust came to an end. However, survivors of the Holocaust recounted atrocities and crimes committed on them by the Nazis. Over the decades that followed the Nuremberg trials which took place between 1945 and 1949 were held to punish the war criminals. In 1953 the German government paid monetary reparations to the Jews whose properties and businesses were confiscated during the Nazi regime.

The Rise of Modern Europe

Modern Europe is characterized by the beginning of the decline and eventual disappearance of feudalism and growth of mercantilism, capitalism, Industrial revolution and the formation of nation states in Europe. Historians have marked the common features of modern Europe such as the Renaissance, The Protestant Reformation and the European colonization of the Americas, Asia and Africa. The beginning of scientific revolution, Enlightenment and the secularization of politics were also the main factors in the beginning of Modern Europe.

The Middle Ages in Europe witnessed the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. But by the late 15^th century and the early 16^th century its power began to be challenged. The Church was criticized for its corruption which subsequently led to the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the establishment of new Protestant Churches. In ideas the Renaissance saw a renewed interest in the writings of ancient Greece and Rome and the use of observation as the means of knowledge. These ideas further led to discoveries in the field of science by Galileo, Newton and Copernicus. They proposed the Heliocentric model of the universe which further revolutionized science. The invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg was a milestone in the field of printing.

By the late middle Ages there was a decline in feudalism and serfdom as the number of people who held land under the feudal system declined. In the Middle Ages the nobles held the land in lieu of military service to the king and the farmers paid a part of their produce to the nobles. But this changed with the beginning of the early modern period. Farmers directly paid rent in goods and money. This was the beginning of Capitalism. Around the same time, Britain, France, Spain and Portugal discovered the New World and Christopher Columbus made his first voyage to the Americas.

In religion the early modern period led to an end to the Wars of Religion in Europe and the rise of constitutional and liberal democracies in Britain, France and the unification of Italy and Germany in the 19^th century. The rise of capitalism and mercantilism is also associated with the modern period as the dominant economic theories. Capitalism believes in the private ownership of property and free trade. The origins of capitalism in modern Europe began when the feudal economy of medieval Europe began to shift substantially in 16^th century England as the manorial system had broken down and land came in the hands of fewer landlords with large estates. The serfdom system in feudalism eventually gave way to capitalism as the serfs who were previously bonded to the land in the feudal structure could directly pay a part of their produce in goods and money.

The economic theory of mercantilism became dominant in Europe from the Renaissance to the early modern period. Mercantilism implied an excess of exports over imports and that trade balances should be favourable. The colonial countries served as export markets and supplied raw materials to the mother country. Mercantilism was profitable to the mother country and not to the colonies. For example Britain ruled over India and its economy was so designed so as to maximize the exports of Britain while India became a source of raw material and imports for the British.

In the technological field the Industrial revolution which originated in England in the mid 18^TH century was marked by a gradual change in the methods of production. The invention of the steam power, water frame and the power loom mechanized production in England. Prior to the Industrial Revolution England was a largely agrarian and rural society but the industrial revolution transformed England and subsequently Europe in to an industrialized and urbanized economy. More efficient and mechanized methods of production allowed for greater production of textiles in Britain. The industrial revolution also had an impact on the transportation networks in Britain as road and railway networks became more efficient. George Stephenson invented the steam engine in Britain and the beginning of rail network started in Britain.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 in Britain and the French Revolution of 1789 in France saw the rise of constitutional and democratic institutions in Europe. The Glorious revolution was preceded by the English Civil war in 1642 which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in Britain while the French Revolution of 1789 in France saw the overthrow of Louis XVI and the eventual establishment of people’s sovereignty in France. During the 19^th century Europe experienced the rise of nationalism inspired by the ideals of the French revolution. Though initially suppressed by the monarchs and rulers of Europe nationalism  found its expression in the liberation of people from foreign rule like the Greek War of Independence, The Italian war of Independence and the  unification of Germany after the defeat of France in the Franco Prussian war by Germany .

By the latter half of the 19^th century Britain and Germany rivaled each other in naval supremacy. Secret pacts and treaties were signed by the various European powers which ultimately set the stage for the First World War. The immediate trigger for the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist. The war caused immense losses in men and material.

It was fought between the Allies (Britain, USA, France, Japan, Italy and Russia) and the Central powers (Germany, Austria, Hungary and Turkey). After the war the Allies emerged victorious and forced Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles.

The League of Nations was formed to establish peace after the First World War. But Germany being forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles and accept humiliating terms after the First World War saw the rise of dictatorship under Adolf Hitler. Italy also saw the rise of Fascism under Benito Mussolini and Japan also followed an aggressive policy in Asia which eventually led to the Second World war. Meanwhile the Russian revolution of 1917 brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia and the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of the Soviet Union.

It can be concluded that Europe from being a feudal and religious society in the Middle Ages saw revolutions and ideas which ultimately signalled the beginning of democracy and scientific thinking among the masses. The beginning of constitutional democracy in Britain and the Ideas of liberty and equality became an inspiration for the American Revolution and the subsequent decolonization of Africa and Asia. Modern Europe owes its democratic institutions largely to these ideals.

The Cold war and American foreign policy

The Second World War had led to the allied powers join forces with the Soviet Union and USA in their fight against the fascist regimes of Italy and Germany in Europe and Japanese expansionism in Asia. But by 1945 major fighting in the European theater and Pacific theater began to come to an end. World War II in Europe ended with the defeat of Nazi Germany by the Allied powers in May 1945.In August 1945 with the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan by USA the Second World War finally came to an end. In the final stages of the Second World War relations between the USA and the Soviet Union began to fall apart.

The Yalta conference and the Potsdam conference took place in the final stages of WW II.The Yalta conference was a major event in the Cold War. It was attended by Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Neither side trusted the other and Stalin was of the belief that Britain and USA delayed the Normandy invasion and Allied invasion of Italy to cause the Soviet army to struggle alone against Nazi Germany.

The Potsdam conference of 1945 was attended by Harry Truman, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin. Truman had just replaced Roosevelt as President of the United States. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the post war reorganization of Europe and peace treaty issues. It was at the Potsdam conference that Truman made Stalin aware of the atomic bomb program (Manhattan project) and that the Americans had developed the world’s first atomic bomb. Both Truman and Stalin were suspicious of each other’s intentions and it was at the Potsdam conference that the Cold War started.

The nuclear arms race between the USA and the Soviet Union and the ideological incompatibility were the main features   of the Cold war. The USA had stockpiled a large arsenal of nuclear weapons and it was the only nation in the world to have used nuclear weapons in warfare. In response to this the Soviet Union conducted its first nuclear test in August 1949 which further led to rivalry, distrust and suspicion between the two nations. By the 1950s both countries had developed enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other. Their rivalry also extended to the space race when in 1957 the Soviet Union successfully launched its first satellite Sputnik and sent the first human to space in 1961.In a similar move America made its first landing on the moon in July 1969.

Ideological incompatibility was another feature of the Cold war. The USA had a capitalist economy and the Soviet Union had a communist economy. The Russian revolution of 1917 had transformed Russia in to a communist nation while the United States was a modern liberal democracy based on the principles of individualism. Capitalism believes in the private ownership of property and free trade while communism advocates the control of state over the means of production.

American foreign policy during the Cold War wanted to contain the spread of communism and its spread by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had already expanded its sphere of communism in Korea, China, Vietnam and Eastern Europe. In 1948 America started the Marshall plan to help the countries of Western Europe in their economic recovery following the destruction of Second World War.President Harry Truman approved the Marshall plan  in 1948 and aid was given to Britain,France,Belgium and other West European countries.

On the military front the United States signed the NATO pact in 1949 with the countries of Western Europe .to provide them military aid in the case of a Soviet attack. To counter this the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact with the countries of Eastern Europe in 1955.The high points of the Cold War were the Cuban Missile crisis of 1962, the 1950-53 Korean war, the 1956 Suez crisis, the Vietnam War, the Berlin blockade of 1948-49 and the Berlin crisis of 1961.The Soviet Union and the US also competed for influence in Latin America and the Middle East

By the early 1970s the USSR and US entered a period of détente (French word for easing of relations) when relations between the USSR and the US began to improve. However things took a turn with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 which again led to a strain in relations. By the early 1980s Mikhail Gorbachev emerged as a prominent figure in the USSR. He withdrew from the Soviet Afghan war and both Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to reduce their nuclear weapons and end the Cold War.Domestically, he embarked on a policy of Glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring).

The various Eastern bloc nations broke away from the Soviet Union in 1991 and this finally led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War. The fall of Berlin wall in 1989 led to the reunification of Germany.Following the end of Cold War the United States emerged as the sole superpower in the world.The United States had to intervene militarily in the 1991 Kuwait war when Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. A coalition of American and British forces defeated Iraq in the 1991 Gulf war. America launched an invasion of Iraq in 2003 and ousted Saddam Hussein from power. A new threat has emerged in the form of terrorism and America has been fighting this menace in the present times.

The Church in Medieval Europe

Image Source: historyhit.com

 Medieval Europe refers to the period in European history beginning with the fall of Western Roman Empire (476 AD) in the 5th century till the end of the 15th century. In the middle ages the Catholic Church had a profound influence over the lives of the people. The Pope held the supreme authority in the middle ages. The Church was the dominant institution in medieval Europe. Its influence was both in matters religious and political. It was the church who upholded the Christian values and propagated the Christian doctrine. Its power also extended to the appointment of kings and monarchs.

 After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century successor and independent kingdoms arose in Europe. The Germanic peoples had swept through Britain, France and Germany which led to a breakdown in the central authority of the Roman Empire. The last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus who was deposed in 476 AD.The Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Anglo Saxons, Goths and the Slavs occupied the eastern, western and central parts of Europe. This led to profound social, political and cultural changes in Europe. A characteristic feature of this period was the increase in urbanization in the cities of Europe. 

By the year 800 AD, The Frankish Empire was ruling over France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. The Anglo Saxons ruled over Britain and various city states existed in Europe. Each of these kingdoms converted to Christianity and as such the Church played a dominant role in Medieval Europe. The Catholic Church claimed to represent all European Christians and had a say in the day to day affairs of the state. Even a poorest peasant had to pay 1/10th of his earnings as tithe to the church. The Church did not pay any taxes and had a right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe. Over a period of time the church became an institution which accumulated wealth through sale of indulgences which led to corruption in the Church. 

Efforts were made to curb the growing power of the Catholic Church. In England, the Magna Carta signed in the year 1215 advocated the separation of the Church and state. It was signed by King John of England though it was annulled later by his barons. It was not till the beginning of the 16th century that the authority of the Roman Catholic Church came to be seriously challenged. 

The Protestant Reformation initiated by Martin Luther began to attack the church for its corruption and traditional dogma. He advocated that people read the Bible themselves and that it was the sole source of all spiritual authority. Martin Luther published his 95 theses. For this the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther. The Reformation subsequently spread to other parts of Europe. Kings and rulers broke away from the authority of the Catholic Church in Europe. 

The Church was the supreme religious and political authority in medieval Europe. But this began to change with the advent of early modern period. With the secularization of Europe in Early modern period people began to view reason and science over religion which led to a decline in the power and authority of the church.