The Roman Empire

 

The Roman empire was the most powerful empire in the history of Western civilization. Its transition from a republic to an empire was marked by a change in the form of rule. Initially, in the Roman republic, it was ruled by annually elected magistrates (Roman consuls) in cooperation with the Roman senate. The political upheaval of the 1^st century BC eventually led to rule by emperors. Rome endured a series of conspiracies, internal conflicts and civil wars beginning in the late 2^nd century BC and its power began to extend beyond Italy. This period is known as the crisis of the Roman republic.

The crisis of the roman republic was the period of social unrest and political instability from about 134 BC to 44 BC that led to the end of the roman republic and the beginning of the Roman empire. Towards the end of this era in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was dictator for a short time before he was assassinated by a group of senators. The senators wanted to restore the Roman republic and they feared the full concentration of powers in the hands of Julius Caesar would undermine the Roman republic. After the assassination of Julius Caesar, the triumvirate of Lepidus, Octavian, and Mark Antony ruled over Rome. However, Octavian went to war against Antony in north Africa and after his victory in the battle of Actium(31BCE), he became Rome’s first emperor Augustus. The reign of Augustus ushered in a period of social stability and economic prosperity. The form of government was principate which combined few elements of a republic with that of a monarchy. The Pax Romana (Roman peace) was a 200-year time of peace and prosperity.

After the death of Augustus his heir Tiberius(14-37AD) assumed power and he continued his predecessor’s policies. It was during the rule of Tiberius that Jesus Christ was crucified. After Tiberius, the Roman empire was ruled by Caligula (37-41 AD), Claudius (41-54 AD), and Nero (54-68 AD). The first five rulers of the empire are known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty due to the two-family names they descended from (either by birth or due to adoption), Julius and Claudius. Claudius expanded Roman rule in Britain. Caligula and Claudius were both assassinated while on the throne. Nero’s suicide ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and thus began the period of social unrest known as the rule of the four emperors. The four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Following Nero’s suicide in 68 AD Galba assumed power but he proved incompetent to rule. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. Otho succeeded him and records indicate that he was expected to be a good emperor. General Vitellius wanted the throne for himself and thus civil war began which ended in Otho’s suicide and the ascendancy of Vitellius on the throne. Vitellius did not prove fit for the throne and the throne subsequently passed to Vespasian who became the founder of the short Flavian dynasty. The Flavian dynasty was followed by the Nerva-Antonine dynasty who ruled over the Roman empire from 96 AD to 192 AD. These emperors were Nerva(96-98AD), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), Lucius Verus (161-169), Marcus Aurelius (169-180) and Commodus (180-192).

During the rule of Commodus, the empire went in to decline. After his death, the Severan dynasty came to power whose rule was tumultuous, and following the collapse of the Severan dynasty the Roman empire suffered due to the crisis of the Third century which was characterized by invasions, economic disorder, civil strife, and plague. Aurelian (270-275) again went to the task of stabilizing the empire. His successor Diocletian(284-305) completed the work of fully restoring the empire, Diocletian divided the empire into four regions each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy eventually collapsed and Diocletian abdicated along with his co-emperor. Finally, an order was restored by Constantine the Great who was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and he established Constantinople(Istanbul) as the new capital of the Eastern Roman empire later called the Byzantine empire. During the rule of the Constantinian and the Valentinian dynasties the empire was divided into two parts east and west with dual capitals in Rome and Constantinople. The last emperor to rule over both east and west was Theodosius I who died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire.

The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5^th century due to Germanic migrations. The Romans were successful in resisting these migrations most notably of Attila. The Western Roman Empire finally collapsed due to this migration in 476 AD when the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to Odoacer the Germanic warlord. The Eastern part of the Roman Empire known as the Byzantine empire continued for the next 1000 years when it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453.

The Romans have left a legacy in innovations and inventions. The days of the week and months of the year all come from Rome. The aqueducts, colosseum of Rome in Italy, and advancements in the construction of roads and buildings can be traced to the Romans. The military of the Romans consisted of mercenaries and hired soldiers and were equipped with the latest advancements in technology. The status of women in the Roman empire was considerably good though women could not hold office and women retained property though they still were under their husband’s authority. The language of the Romans was Latin and during the rule of the Roman emperors, the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. The political ideals of republicanism and the architecture of the Romans have influenced many buildings in Europe and the USA notably the Capitol building in Washington in the USA and the classical architecture in Italy.

Art and Architecture of medieval India

The  coming of Muslims to India in the medieval period saw large scale architectural monuments and buildings in India like Qutub Minar,Adhai Din ka Jhonpra,Quwwat ul Islam mosque,Alai Darwaza,Alai minar,Tughlaqabad fort,Lodi Gardens in the Sultanate period and the Taj Mahal,Red fort,Agra fort,Buland Darwaza,Akbar’s tomb,Humayun’s tomb and the Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad,Agra, Delhi and Fatehpur Sikri during the Mughal period.

After the invasion of India by the Turks in the late 12th century the Muslim rulers came in to contact with the Hindus which gradually led to a fusion of Hindu and Islamic elements in architecture which came to be known as the Indo Islamic architecture. Over a period of time this style of architecture was visible in the construction of buildings and monuments during the Sultanate period.

For the sake of convenience the architecture of medieval India can be divided in to two periods –The Sultanate period and the Mughal period. The Sultanate period saw the evolution and beginning of a new type of architecture which was characterized by tall minarets, large domes, calligraphy and use of geometrical shapes. The Muslim rulers built their architectural buildings out of the materials acquired from the demolished temples of the Hindus and used the remains of demolished temples in the construction of their buildings. The factors which were responsible for the fusion of Hindu and Muslim elements in architecture were that the Muslim rulers employed local Indian craftsmen and masons in the construction of their buildings which unconsciously led to the introduction of Hindu architectural designs in their buildings. The Muslim rulers built their architectural buildings according to the Islamic traditions but also had Hindu influences in it.

Of the most influential of the Sultanate architecture the Delhi style of architecture is the most famous. The Delhi style of architecture developed during the reign of Qutubuddin Aibak.The most famous building built by Qutubuddin was the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi which was constructed out of the remains of 27 Hindu and Jain shrines which were demolished by the invaders.The major part of this mosque was conceived as a Muslim House of prayer.The other features of this mosque are the Quranic verses inscribed in Islamic calligraphy. The Adhai Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer was also built by Qutubuddin Aibak in the year 1200AD.It was built out of the remains of demolished temples and it was originally a Sanskrit college with a temple of Saraswati in it. It was converted in to a mosque by Qutubuddin Aibak.

The Qutub Minar at Delhi in the Qutub complex is a tall minaret built by Qutubuddin Aibak and is a UNESCO World heritage site.The Qutub Minar is a tapering tower and is 73 metres tall. It was built to celebrate the Muslim supremacy in Delhi. It has five levels and projecting balconies. The first three levels are made of red sandstone and  the other two of marble and sandstone. The  Alai Darwaza built by Alauddin Khalji of the Khalji dynasty in 1311 is located in the southern gateway of the Qutb complex. It is a domed structure and is built of red sandstone and marble.

The Tughlaqabad fort at Delhi was built in 1321 by the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. It is a massive walled structure and has walls of 10 to 15 metres height. The Lodi Gardens at Delhi was built during the rule of the Sayyid and the Lodi dynasties. It is a popular tourist spot in Delhi and has tombs from the times of Sikandar Lodi and Muhammad Shah.

With the coming of the Mughals in the 16^th century the architecture in India underwent a significant change with the fusion of Persian and Indian elements. The Mughals were great builders and this was visible in the construction of monuments like Taj Mahal at Agra, Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra fort, Akbar’s tomb and Red fort at Delhi,  Humayun’s tomb, Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad in Maharashtra and the Badshahi Masjid at Lahore.

The Mughal rulers patronized architectural buildings and their rule produced monuments and buildings of unusual quality and fine craftsmanship. The tomb of Humayun at Delhi built during the reign of Akbar is known for its Persianate architectural influence and layout of gardens in the Charbagh style. Akbar was also a great patron of architecture and he built buildings of red sandstone like the Agra fort and the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate his victory over Gujarat. However it was Shah Jahan in whose reign the Mughal architecture reached its zenith .He built the Taj Mahal at Agra and it was during his reign that marble replaced sandstone as the primary building material. Shah Jahan also built the Red fort at Delhi and the Jama Masjid at Delhi. Mughal architecture witnessed a decline during the rule of Aurangzeb. The only notable buildings of his reign are the Badshahi Masjid at Lahore and the Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad in Maharashtra.

Hence it can be said that the medieval period in India produced architectural monuments of fine quality. The Sultanate period and the Mughal period contributed significantly to the construction of monuments and buildings which stand today as World Heritage sites in India like the Qutub Minar, Taj Mahal, Agra fort, Red fort and the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.

The Cold war and American foreign policy

The Second World War had led to the allied powers join forces with the Soviet Union and USA in their fight against the fascist regimes of Italy and Germany in Europe and Japanese expansionism in Asia. But by 1945 major fighting in the European theater and Pacific theater began to come to an end. World War II in Europe ended with the defeat of Nazi Germany by the Allied powers in May 1945.In August 1945 with the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan by USA the Second World War finally came to an end. In the final stages of the Second World War relations between the USA and the Soviet Union began to fall apart.

The Yalta conference and the Potsdam conference took place in the final stages of WW II.The Yalta conference was a major event in the Cold War. It was attended by Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Neither side trusted the other and Stalin was of the belief that Britain and USA delayed the Normandy invasion and Allied invasion of Italy to cause the Soviet army to struggle alone against Nazi Germany.

The Potsdam conference of 1945 was attended by Harry Truman, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin. Truman had just replaced Roosevelt as President of the United States. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the post war reorganization of Europe and peace treaty issues. It was at the Potsdam conference that Truman made Stalin aware of the atomic bomb program (Manhattan project) and that the Americans had developed the world’s first atomic bomb. Both Truman and Stalin were suspicious of each other’s intentions and it was at the Potsdam conference that the Cold War started.

The nuclear arms race between the USA and the Soviet Union and the ideological incompatibility were the main features   of the Cold war. The USA had stockpiled a large arsenal of nuclear weapons and it was the only nation in the world to have used nuclear weapons in warfare. In response to this the Soviet Union conducted its first nuclear test in August 1949 which further led to rivalry, distrust and suspicion between the two nations. By the 1950s both countries had developed enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other. Their rivalry also extended to the space race when in 1957 the Soviet Union successfully launched its first satellite Sputnik and sent the first human to space in 1961.In a similar move America made its first landing on the moon in July 1969.

Ideological incompatibility was another feature of the Cold war. The USA had a capitalist economy and the Soviet Union had a communist economy. The Russian revolution of 1917 had transformed Russia in to a communist nation while the United States was a modern liberal democracy based on the principles of individualism. Capitalism believes in the private ownership of property and free trade while communism advocates the control of state over the means of production.

American foreign policy during the Cold War wanted to contain the spread of communism and its spread by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had already expanded its sphere of communism in Korea, China, Vietnam and Eastern Europe. In 1948 America started the Marshall plan to help the countries of Western Europe in their economic recovery following the destruction of Second World War.President Harry Truman approved the Marshall plan  in 1948 and aid was given to Britain,France,Belgium and other West European countries.

On the military front the United States signed the NATO pact in 1949 with the countries of Western Europe .to provide them military aid in the case of a Soviet attack. To counter this the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact with the countries of Eastern Europe in 1955.The high points of the Cold War were the Cuban Missile crisis of 1962, the 1950-53 Korean war, the 1956 Suez crisis, the Vietnam War, the Berlin blockade of 1948-49 and the Berlin crisis of 1961.The Soviet Union and the US also competed for influence in Latin America and the Middle East

By the early 1970s the USSR and US entered a period of détente (French word for easing of relations) when relations between the USSR and the US began to improve. However things took a turn with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 which again led to a strain in relations. By the early 1980s Mikhail Gorbachev emerged as a prominent figure in the USSR. He withdrew from the Soviet Afghan war and both Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to reduce their nuclear weapons and end the Cold War.Domestically, he embarked on a policy of Glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring).

The various Eastern bloc nations broke away from the Soviet Union in 1991 and this finally led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War. The fall of Berlin wall in 1989 led to the reunification of Germany.Following the end of Cold War the United States emerged as the sole superpower in the world.The United States had to intervene militarily in the 1991 Kuwait war when Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. A coalition of American and British forces defeated Iraq in the 1991 Gulf war. America launched an invasion of Iraq in 2003 and ousted Saddam Hussein from power. A new threat has emerged in the form of terrorism and America has been fighting this menace in the present times.

Political processes in Ancient India (1500 BCE-7th century AD)

The study of ancient Indian history began with the advent of British rule in India. The British viewed Indians as savage and barbarians who were unfit to rule themselves and this was reflected in their attitudes towards Indians. The colonial historians like James Mill and Vincent Smith who first wrote the political and social history of ancient India wrote the history of India from a colonial perspective to suit the interests of British imperialism. They divided the history of India in to three periods-The Hindu period, Muslim rule and the British and they concluded that Indians were uncivilized and ruled by despots till the arrival of the British in India. This was justified in their rule over India and exploitation of India’s resources.However, Dayanand Saraswati, B G Tilak, V D Savarkar and K P Jayaswal were in the forefront and proclaimed the superiority of Hindus over Western culture.

They declared that the Indo Aryans were the originators of Indian civilization and the Vedas were the source of all knowledge and rational thought.Tilak  was in the forefront of this by saying that the Rigveda was the earliest text in India.K P Jayaswal  believed that before the advent of democracy  in Europe India had practiced it and thus  they justified self rule from the British.This was the beginning of extremist ideology in the freedom movement of India.But  nationalist historians like Bipin Chandra has emphasized the role of the Mutiny of 1857 ,the Congress and Mahatma Gandhi  as defining historical events.On the other hand Marxist historians like Romila Thapar and Irfan Habib have focused on the class conflict and land ownership in pre-colonial India and of deindustrialization in the Colonial period. The Subaltern school which began in the 1980s has focused on history from below looking at the peasants and working classes and has downplayed caste.

In ancient India between the end of the Indus Valley civilization and the Second Urbanization the Vedic age (1500-500 BCE) played an important role .It was in the Vedic period that the Vedas were composed and it formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology eventually developing in the Kuru kingdom which was a tribal union of several Indo Aryan tribes. The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal.The early Indo Aryans were centred in Punjab and they were organized in to tribes and sustained a pastoral way of life. But in the later Vedic period (1000-500 BCE) these tribes began to spread out from Punjab to the Indo Gangetic Plain. The availability of fertile land and iron production led to the clearing of forests and the adoption of agriculture.This period gave rise to the emergence of towns, kingdoms and complex social differentiation. The end of the Vedic period gave way to the formation of large states and kingdoms called Mahajanapadas and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism challenging the orthodoxy of the Vedas. This period corresponds with the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW).The Indo Aryan tribes were bound by kinship ties and tribal identity was an important feature by which the territory of a particular tribe was identified.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas were distributed in the northern, eastern and central parts of India. These tribes were often at war with each other and were known as janas. In the course of time with the extension of agriculture and division of labour society came to be divided in to jatis or varnas. The four Varnas were the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.In addition to this there were also the untouchables or the outcastes and were considered outside the varna system. This eventually gave way to the caste system in ancient India. Marriage between a Brahmin and a Shudra was strictly prohibited and each Varna had their assigned occupations. Trade and urbanization played a significant part in the Mahajanapadas. These Mahajanapadas existed as republics and monarchies in ancient India. Magadha was the most powerful of the Mahajanapadas and it finally established the Magadha Empire in eastern India by defeating the other  kingdoms.

The Magadha empire with its capital at Patliputra consisted of three dynasties. The Haryanka dynasty,Shishunaga dynasty and the Nanda dynasty.The Nanda dynasty was finally overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya  with the assistance of Chanakya and with this the Nanda dynasty came to an end.

The Mauryan empire (323-185BCE) founded by Chandragupta Maurya was the largest empire in South Asia. He expanded his kingdom to the western and central parts of India. After Chandragupta Maurya his son Bindusara extended the empire to the south of India. Bindusara’s son Ashoka further expanded the empire to include parts of south and west India.But it was the Battle of Kalinga which became a turning point in his life. Though Ashoka won the Battle of Kalinga he was deeply pained to see the devastation and loss of life. After this he renounced war and embraced Buddhism. He implemented principles of Ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity. After the death of Ashoka in 185 BCE the empire began to decline due to Ashoka’s generous donations to Buddhist monasteries, internal revolts, a succession of weak rulers and administrative collapse.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions the structure of the Mauryan state. The empire was divided in to four provinces with its capital at Patliputra.The king was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of Ministers. The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince) who governed the provinces as king’s representative. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security. After the Mauryan Empire post Mauryan kingdoms emerged in India like the Indo Greeks, Kushanas and Satavahanas in the Deccan and the Tamil states in the south known as the Sangam age.

The Satavahanas with their capital at Paithan and Amaravati in modern day Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh ruled the Deccan region of India. Their territory comprised the present states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The empire reached the peak of its rule under Gautamiputra Satakarni.In the Deep South the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas ruled over South India. A remarkable feature of this period is the Sangam age in which Tamil literature flourished. Three were three Sangams held in south India .The first Sangam was held at Madurai, the second Sangam at Kapadapuram and the third sangam was also Held at Madurai in Tamil Nadu.

By the late 3^rd century AD the Gupta Empire was founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta.The most notable rulers were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta and Chandragupta II.The Gupta Empire is considered as the Golden age of India and it was during this period that the Mahabharata and Ramayana were canonized. The Gupta period also produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varamihira and Vatsyayana.This period witnessed achievements in architecture, sculpture and painting. Samudragupta also called as the Napoleon of India made further conquests and consolidated the empire.Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta, Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Kumaragupta and Skandagupta. After Skandagupta the empire went in to decline.

The administrative system of the Gupta Empire shows a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was divided in to 26 provinces which were called as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided in to Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. The Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (Council of representatives).

From the post Mauryan period and especially from the Gupta period the kings used to make land grants to the Brahmanas, a custom which was sanctified in the Dharmashastras.Even during the Pre Mauryan period the Buddhist Pali texts refer to the villages granted to the Brahmanas by the rulers of Kosala and Magadha which has led historians to coin the term Indian feudalism. The lands granted to the Brahmanas could not be confiscated as the Brahmanas were at the top of the Varna hierarchy.By the post Gupta period even administrative officials were granted land. This ultimately led to a breakdown in the central authority. The major implications of feudal polity in India led to the creation of powerful intermediaries which had great shares of economic and political power.

Feudalism eventually led to the Brahmans moving their focus from the religious functions to secular ones. The immediate consequences of feudalism in India led to the political decentralization of semiautonomous rulers like Samantas and Mahasamantas. Feudalism continued to exist in India till the coming of the Mughals in 1500s.

The beginning of European colonization in India

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 blocked the passage of Europe to Asia. The European powers began to find alternative routes to reach Asia from Europe. The four major European powers were the Portuguese, Dutch, British and French which subsequently held colonial possessions in India. The European powers initially were only concerned in trade with India but in the 18^th century with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire the Portuguese, French and British fought among themselves for the control of India. In the end the British became the masters of the whole of India by defeating the Portuguese, Dutch and the French.

The Portuguese were the first to come to India for trade and established factories and colonial posts in India. The Portuguese under the command of Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in May 1498. Having arrived there he obtained permission from the Zamorin of Calicut to trade with India. Subsequently the Portuguese established settlements at Quilon, Daman, Diu, Goa and Mumbai. Goa was their chief possession and it was ultimately taken over by India. From Portugal in 1961.The Portuguese promoted Catholicism and the Jesuit missionaries played an active role in the conversion of Indians to Christianity.

The Dutch East India Company was established on 20^th March 1602 to trade with Mughal India. By the end of the 16^th century and the beginning of the 17^th century  the Mughal empire under Akbar had ushered in a period of rapid economic growth and the Bengal subah was the most developed  province of Mughal India from which 50% of textiles and 80% of silk were imported. The Dutch controlled the Malabar Coast of India and established trading posts at Pallipuram, Cochin, Quilon, Cannanore and Surat.They conquered Ceylon (Srilanka) from the Portuguese. The Dutch did not play a major role and later they were expelled from India by the Mughals in the 17^th century.

It was finally the British and the French who competed for dominance over India. The East India Company (EIC) was started in 1600 in England by a charter given by Queen Elizabeth I to trade with India. In 1608 the Company sent its representative Captain William Hawkins to the Mughal emperor Jahangir to set up settlement at Surat .They were initially refused by Jahangir but later in 1609 Jahangir gave a Farman (royal order) to establish a factory at Surat. Factories were established at Surat and Masulipatnam. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir and received a farman to carry free trade and got exemption from inland toll. During the rule of Aurangzeb royal farman was issued which exempted the EIC to pay custom duties in Bengal. In 1700, the EIC built a fort called Fort Williams in Calcutta. In 1717, the Mughal emperor Farruksiyar gave a royal farman giving trade concessions to the British.

The French East India Company was set up in 1664 during the reign of Louis XIV.The first French settlement was established at Surat (1668) and second at Masulipatnam (1669).Other settlements were Chandranagar and Pondicherry. The French intensified their territorial conquests in India in the mid 18^th century.

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 and the defeat of the Maratha empire at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 the British and the French changed their motives  from commercial to territorial expansion .They began to meddle in the internal politics of India. In the later 18^th century Great Britain and France struggled for dominance in India. In 1757 Siraj ud Daulah was the Nawab of Bengal and Mir Jafar  his commander in chief. The British wanted to seize control of Bengal .Hence they bribed Mir Jafar in the Battle of Plassey fought on 23^rd June 1757 in which Robert Clive and the British East India Company defeated Siraj ud Daulah and installed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal. After Mir  Jafar became the new  Nawab of  Bengal the British made him a puppet ruler. Mir Qasim(son in law of Mir Jafar) got the support of the British  to become the new Nawab and under the pressure of the British Mir Jafar decided to resign in favour of Mir Qasim. An alliance of Mir Qasim, Shah Alam II and Shuja ud Daula fought the battle of Buxar in 1764 with the British under Robert Clive as they believed that the British were misusing the farmans issued to them by Mir Qasim..With this the province of Bengal was conquered by the British.

After this the British turned their attention towards the Marathas. After the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 the Maratha Empire was in decline which gave an opportunity to the British to interfere in the internal politics of the Marathas leading to the First and Second Anglo Maratha wars. In the Third Anglo Maratha war the British defeated the Marathas in 1818.

The Kingdom of Mysore existed in south India. The French allied themselves with the rulers of Mysore and later Hyder Ali and  his son Tipu Sultan fought four wars with the British which came to be known a s the Anglo Mysore wars. In the Fourth Anglo Mysore War Tipu Sultan was killed in 1799 at the siege of Seringapatam and the Kingdom of Mysore was annexed by the British.

Finally in the 19^th century the British defeated the Sikhs in the Second Anglo Sikh war. In the First Anglo Sikh war the Sikh Empire defeated the British and the treaty of Lahore was signed in 1846.However, the British continued to interfere in the internal matters of the Sikh empire which led to the outbreak of the Second Anglo Sikh war in 1848.The Sikh empire was defeated and subsequently Punjab was annexed by the British. 

The British started as traders in the Mughal Empire but they took advantage of the weakness and disunity of the Indian rulers in the 18^th century to fulfill their territorial ambitions in India and ruled the country for over 200 years.

The French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte

The French revolution (1789-1799) was a turning point in the history of modern Europe that started in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s. By the late 18^th century France was in crisis due to the despotic rule of King Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty. During this period the people of France revolted against absolute monarchy and the feudal nature of French nobility. The ideals of equality before the law and Enlightenment inspired a change in the French society. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy and replaced it with a republic. The Revolution eventually culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte.

The causes of the French Revolution  were a series of bad harvests coupled with Louis XVI costly wars, rising social and economic inequality, political ideals inspired by enlightenment, economic mismanagement and droughts and overtaxed peasants. The ‘Ancien Regime’ or the French social and political system of the Bourbon dynasty ruled over France in the 18^th century. The social and political structure of the French society was characterized by feudalism and absolutism. In 1774 Louis XVI ascended the throne of France in the middle of a financial crisis in which France was suffering from budget deficit and bankruptcy due to France’s costly involvement in the Seven Years war and later the American Revolutionary War. The king proposed reforms to deal with the poor economic condition of France but the clergy and the nobles did not want to lose any of their privileges.

The Estates General was composed of the clergy, nobility and the common people. The clergy and the nobility which comprised of the first and the second Estates did not pay any taxes whereas the third Estate which comprised of peasants and ordinary citizens had to bear the brunt of taxes. The rule of King Louis XVI was absolute since he believed in the divine rights of kings. The king convened a meeting of the Estates General in Versailles on 5^th May 1789 but the nobles and the clergy were not in favor of any reforms. The Third Estate met at the Tennis Court in June 1789 and wanted popular sovereignty in France leading up to the overthrow of Louis XVI beginning with the storming of the Bastille prison on 14^th July 1789 till the execution of Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette by the revolutionaries in 1792. The people of France formed a National Constituent Assembly and abolished privileges and feudalism in France. Also the tithe (a 10% tax for the church) gathered by the clergy was also abolished.

On 26^th August 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Regime the Church had been the largest landowner in the country owning about 10% of the land. The growing resentment of the people of France towards the Church led to a decline in religion in France. The first French Republic was proclaimed on 10^th August 1792. This period signalled the end of monarchy, the establishment of the National convention and the Reign of Terror and the subsequent rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in France. In 1792 and 1793 Paris was plagued by discontent due to food shortages which led to the Reign of terror in France. The Reign of terror (1793-1794) was a period of massacres and numerous public executions which took place as a response to anticlerical resentment in France initiated by Maximilian Robespierre. He was ultimately executed by the revolutionaries. Meanwhile, France was engaged in the French Revolutionary wars with Britain and other European powers. In this scene, Napoleon Bonaparte, a statesman and military leader rose to prominence in France in 1799. He became the emperor of the first French Republic in 1804 after seizing political power in a 1799 coup’d’etat. Napoleon conquered every European state and he was unchallenged in the battlefield. However, his military successes suffered a reversal and he was forced to abdicate. He went on exile in Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. On February 26, 1815 he returned to France once again and gathered forces against a coalition of Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia. However, in June 1815 the French were crushed by the British at the battle of Waterloo. In October 1815, Napoleon was once again exiled to the island of Saint Helena where he died on May 5, 1821.

Mahajanapadas in ancient India

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The Mahajanapadas existed in ancient India from 600 BCE to 300 BCE. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas in ancient India which existed as oligarchic and republican monarchies. The word Mahajanapada means great realm from maha “great” and janapada “foothold of a people”. Buddhist texts such as Anguttara Nikaya give frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which developed and  evolved in India  from Gandhara in northwest India to Anga in eastern India.

The period of the later Vedic age (1000-600 BC) saw the conquest of northern India by the Aryan tribes. After the end of the Indus Valley civilization with the availability of fertile land and iron production centers in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh tribes (janas) of the later Vedic period decided to form their own territorial communities eventually giving rise to new and permanent settlements called states or Janapadas. The production of iron played an important role in the expansion of the territorial states of the region leading to the formation of large states or Mahajanapadas. Prior to the beginning of Buddhism in India these tribes settled in northern, central and eastern parts of India. The Mahajanapadas became the centres of political, religious and cultural activity. Vedic Hinduism, Sramana Buddhism and the languages of Prakrit and Sanskrit became the chief religion and languages of these Mahajanapadas. Tribal identity was the main factor by which the territory of a particular state was identified.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas were frequently at war with each other and in the end the Magadha kingdom was victorious leading to the formation of the Magadha Empire in eastern India. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are listed below:

1.      Magadha

Magadha was one of the prosperous kingdoms in ancient India and the most prominent of all the Mahajanapadas. Patliputra (modern Patna) was the capital of Magadha and it was bounded on three sides by rivers. It consisted of several dynasties like Haryanka dynasty, Shishunaga dynasty and Nanda dynasty. According to ancient texts, Brihadrata was the earliest ruler of Magadha. After him, Bimbisara (544 BC- 492 BC), a man of political ambition expanded his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquests. His first conquest started with Anga and he was a contemporary of Gautam Buddha. Ajatashatru killed his own father Bimbisara to get the throne. He conquered Vaishali, Anga and Kashi . The Nanda dynasty came to the throne.      But there is no proper evidence for the founder of the Nanda Dynasty .The Nandas ruled for 22 years (345 BC-322 BC). Dhanananda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. His empire extended from eastern India till Punjab. Chandragupta Maurya with the help of his guru Chanakya conquered Magadha and thus the Nanda dynasty came to an end. Its capital was Rajgiri and later Patliputra.

2.      Gandhara

Gandhara in Peshawar in modern Pakistan was the greatest city in ancient India. References to Gandhara have been made in the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The capital of Gandhara was Takshila and its university the Takshila University was a renowned centre of learning in the world. Scholars from all over the world came to the university to seek knowledge.

3.      Kamboja

Kamboja was a republican monarchy situated on either side of the Hindukush mountain range in Central Asia. Clans of Kamboja are believed to have established their settlements in India. The Ashokan Rock Edicts mention the Kambojas as tribes who had crossed the Indus river to establish themselves in India. Its capital was Rajapura.

4.      Kuru

During the time of the Buddha, Kuru was ruled by Korayvya, a titular chieftain. Its capital was Indraprastha (modern Delhi) and its people were known for their sound health and deep wisdom. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Panchalas and the Yadavas. In the 6^th and 5^th century BCE republican form of government existed in the Kuru kingdom. Kautilya”s Arthashastra written in Sanskrit in the 4^th century BCE also has a mention of the Kurus. Its capital was Hastinapur and Indraprastha.

5.      Kosala

The kingdom of Kosala was located in close proximity to Magadha and its capital was Ayodhya. It was bounded on three sides by river Ganges in the south, river Gandak in the east and the Himalaya Mountains in the north. The Vedic texts mention that Kosala was the biggest and most powerful kingdom to have ever existed. During the times of Buddha and Mahavira king Prasenajit ruled over the Kosala kingdom. It was finally annexed by Magadha.

6.      Malla

The Mallas of the Malla Kingdom were a powerful people who lived in Northern south Asia. Buddhist texts state the kingdom was a republican dominion comprised of nine territories. Malla had monarchical forms of government but later moved towards republican forms of government. Ancient cities like Kushinagar and Pava belonged to the Malla kingdom. Kushinagar and Pava hold a special significance for Jains and Buddhists as Lord Mahavira and Gautam Buddha stayed there for a long time. Its capital was Kushinagar and Pava.

7.      Panchala

The Panchala was located east of the Kuru kingdom between the river Ganges and the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. It was originally a monarchical kingdom but turned in to a republican dominion between the 6^th and 5^th century BCE. Kautilya’s  Arthashastra also makes a mention of the Panchala kingdom. It was later annexed by the Mauryan empire and also by the Gupta empire. Its capital was  Ahicchitra.

8.      Vajji

Vajji was the most prominent kingdom of the Mahajanapadas in ancient India. The Jaina text Bhagvati sutra and the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya mention the Vajji kingdom. It was located towards the north of the river Ganges and the river Gandaki in the west. The Gandaki river separated the Vajji kingdom from the Malla and Kosala kingdom. Its capital city was Vaishali.

9.      Matsya

Founded by an Indo Aryan Vedic tribe the Matsya kingdom was located to the south of Kuru kingdom and west of river Yamuna. The Yamuna river separated the Matsya kingdom from the Panchala kingdom. Viratnagar was the capital city of the Matsya kingdom. Its political power began to decline and it was ultimately conquered by the Kuru kingdom.

10.  Chedi

The kingdom of Chedi finds mention in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Its ruler was Shishupala who was an ally of the kings of Kuru and Magadha. Its capital was Suktimati. However the exact location of modern Suktimati has not been found yet.

11.  Kashi

The kingdom of Kashi with its capital at Varanasi was one of the most prominent of the Mahajanapadas. It was bounded by river Varuna to the north and river Assi in the south. Kashi was one of the most prosperous kingdoms in ancient India. Kashi was in constant conflict with the kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha and Anga.

12.  Surasena

The kingdom of Surasena was located to the west of river Yamuna and to the east of the kingdom of Matsya. Buddhism propagated during the rule of king of Surasena, Avantiputra was the earliest disciples of Buddha. The capital of the Surasena kingdom was Mathura where the worship of Krishna became prominent. It was later annexed by the Magadha Empire.

13.  Vatsa

Vatsa was situated near present day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh had a monarchical form of government. Its king was Udayana with its capital at Kaushambi. Udayana initially opposed the teachings of the Buddha but later became a follower of Buddhism and made it its state religion. Kaushambi was a prominent city and attracted a number of wealthy merchants.

14.  Avanti

The kingdom of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh was one of the great monarchies that existed in ancient India. The river Narmada was the principal source of water for the kingdom of Avanti. Avanti was a great centre of Buddhism in ancient India. It was later conquered by the Magadhan kingdom.

15.  Anga

The Atharvaveda describes the Anga as of Indo Aryan ethnicity. Over a period of time the kingdom of Anga became a great centre of trade attracting merchants from the neighbouring kingdoms. Anga’s main rival was Magadha and their kingdoms were separated by the river Champa. Bimbisara ultimately conquered Anga. Its capital was Champa.

16.  Assaka

The kingdom of Assaka was located in southern India near the river Godavari. The river Godavari was the chief source of water for the Assaka kingdom. Its capital was Potana (Potali) in present day Maharashtra. King Brahmadatta ruled over the Assaka kingdom.

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