The beginning of European colonization in India

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 blocked the passage of Europe to Asia. The European powers began to find alternative routes to reach Asia from Europe. The four major European powers were the Portuguese, Dutch, British and French which subsequently held colonial possessions in India. The European powers initially were only concerned in trade with India but in the 18^th century with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire the Portuguese, French and British fought among themselves for the control of India. In the end the British became the masters of the whole of India by defeating the Portuguese, Dutch and the French.

The Portuguese were the first to come to India for trade and established factories and colonial posts in India. The Portuguese under the command of Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in May 1498. Having arrived there he obtained permission from the Zamorin of Calicut to trade with India. Subsequently the Portuguese established settlements at Quilon, Daman, Diu, Goa and Mumbai. Goa was their chief possession and it was ultimately taken over by India. From Portugal in 1961.The Portuguese promoted Catholicism and the Jesuit missionaries played an active role in the conversion of Indians to Christianity.

The Dutch East India Company was established on 20^th March 1602 to trade with Mughal India. By the end of the 16^th century and the beginning of the 17^th century  the Mughal empire under Akbar had ushered in a period of rapid economic growth and the Bengal subah was the most developed  province of Mughal India from which 50% of textiles and 80% of silk were imported. The Dutch controlled the Malabar Coast of India and established trading posts at Pallipuram, Cochin, Quilon, Cannanore and Surat.They conquered Ceylon (Srilanka) from the Portuguese. The Dutch did not play a major role and later they were expelled from India by the Mughals in the 17^th century.

It was finally the British and the French who competed for dominance over India. The East India Company (EIC) was started in 1600 in England by a charter given by Queen Elizabeth I to trade with India. In 1608 the Company sent its representative Captain William Hawkins to the Mughal emperor Jahangir to set up settlement at Surat .They were initially refused by Jahangir but later in 1609 Jahangir gave a Farman (royal order) to establish a factory at Surat. Factories were established at Surat and Masulipatnam. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir and received a farman to carry free trade and got exemption from inland toll. During the rule of Aurangzeb royal farman was issued which exempted the EIC to pay custom duties in Bengal. In 1700, the EIC built a fort called Fort Williams in Calcutta. In 1717, the Mughal emperor Farruksiyar gave a royal farman giving trade concessions to the British.

The French East India Company was set up in 1664 during the reign of Louis XIV.The first French settlement was established at Surat (1668) and second at Masulipatnam (1669).Other settlements were Chandranagar and Pondicherry. The French intensified their territorial conquests in India in the mid 18^th century.

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 and the defeat of the Maratha empire at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 the British and the French changed their motives  from commercial to territorial expansion .They began to meddle in the internal politics of India. In the later 18^th century Great Britain and France struggled for dominance in India. In 1757 Siraj ud Daulah was the Nawab of Bengal and Mir Jafar  his commander in chief. The British wanted to seize control of Bengal .Hence they bribed Mir Jafar in the Battle of Plassey fought on 23^rd June 1757 in which Robert Clive and the British East India Company defeated Siraj ud Daulah and installed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal. After Mir  Jafar became the new  Nawab of  Bengal the British made him a puppet ruler. Mir Qasim(son in law of Mir Jafar) got the support of the British  to become the new Nawab and under the pressure of the British Mir Jafar decided to resign in favour of Mir Qasim. An alliance of Mir Qasim, Shah Alam II and Shuja ud Daula fought the battle of Buxar in 1764 with the British under Robert Clive as they believed that the British were misusing the farmans issued to them by Mir Qasim..With this the province of Bengal was conquered by the British.

After this the British turned their attention towards the Marathas. After the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 the Maratha Empire was in decline which gave an opportunity to the British to interfere in the internal politics of the Marathas leading to the First and Second Anglo Maratha wars. In the Third Anglo Maratha war the British defeated the Marathas in 1818.

The Kingdom of Mysore existed in south India. The French allied themselves with the rulers of Mysore and later Hyder Ali and  his son Tipu Sultan fought four wars with the British which came to be known a s the Anglo Mysore wars. In the Fourth Anglo Mysore War Tipu Sultan was killed in 1799 at the siege of Seringapatam and the Kingdom of Mysore was annexed by the British.

Finally in the 19^th century the British defeated the Sikhs in the Second Anglo Sikh war. In the First Anglo Sikh war the Sikh Empire defeated the British and the treaty of Lahore was signed in 1846.However, the British continued to interfere in the internal matters of the Sikh empire which led to the outbreak of the Second Anglo Sikh war in 1848.The Sikh empire was defeated and subsequently Punjab was annexed by the British. 

The British started as traders in the Mughal Empire but they took advantage of the weakness and disunity of the Indian rulers in the 18^th century to fulfill their territorial ambitions in India and ruled the country for over 200 years.

Slavery in the British Empire

The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century the foremost global power in the world. Its influence extended in the political, cultural, legal and linguistic domain. The Age of Discovery led to the European exploration of the globe and in the process the establishment of large overseas colonies.

At the end of the 14^th century Europeans began to take people from Africa against their will. In 1672 Charles II gave the Royal African Company (RAC) the monopoly to supply African slaves to the British colonies. These slaves were mainly transported to the Carribean and American colonies to work as indentured labourers. At times the slaves resisted and there were frequent rebellions by slaves against their masters. The slaves lived in inhuman conditions and many of them died of disease, starvation and misery. The white colonists claimed racial superiority over the enslaved black Africans. Between 1698 and 1797, 75,000 slaves were transported from Africa to the Carribeans through the Atlantic slave trade. It was estimated in 1796 that every year about 72,000 slaves were transported from Africa to the West Indies.

Over the next 20 years the Royal African Company (RAC) carried over 90,000 slaves to the Americas. In the beginning of the 18^th century the RAC lost its monopoly to supply slaves to the British colonies. Between the 16^th and the 19^th centuries up to 15 million Africans were carried as slaves to the Americas. The Church of England encouraged the British slave trade and owned a large number of slaves. However, many church members condemned slavery and opposed it. Two of them, Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson established the society for the abolition of the slave trade in 1787. In the beginning of the 19^th century there were various efforts made for the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. The British Parliament finally abolished slavery in 1833 but it was not until 1838 that slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire. After the abolition of the slave trade new societies emerged in America and many Africans were displaced from their homelands. Britain used racial superiority to justify the enslavement of Africans.

Thus, it can be said that the slave trade in the British Empire was an outcome of the European colonization of the Americas, Africa and Asia. It was a profit for the slave owners to own slaves and engage in the enslavement of Africans. However, in the present context with the advancement of human rights and democracy slavery no longer exists since all nations of the world have recognized the natural rights of human beings.

The Communist Revolution in China (1911-1949)

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The declaration of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Zedong on 1^st October 1949 brought to an end the conflict between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT). Historians trace the origins of the 1949 revolution in China to sharp inequalities in Chinese society. The rule of the Qing dynasty or the Manchu dynasty (1644-1911) was characterized by high rates of rent, usury and concentration of wealth in the hands of village chiefs and landlords. Also China was under the pressure of Western powers leading to the opium wars, unequal treaties and the Boxer Rebellion. Extreme internal inequality combined with external aggression was the factors which led to the rise of nationalism, class consciousness and leftism among the Chinese population.

The Xinhai revolution of 1911 brought to an end the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. The people of China came in to contact with the western ideas. Dr Sun Yat Sen (1866-1925) advocated a modern state in China based up on the Western ideals. He formed the Kuomintang or the Nationalist Party in China in 1921. He was instrumental in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). He was the first provisional president of the Republic of China. After the death of Sun Yat Sen in 1925 Chiang Kai Shek became the head of the Kuomintang or the Nationalist party. Meanwhile Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao had formed the Chinese Communist party in 1921. They believed in the ideology of the dictatorship of the proletariat through revolutionary means. Inspired by the Russian revolution they formed small Marxist groups throughout China and wanted to gain power through revolutionary means. At the third congress of the Communist party in Shanghai in June 1923 the delegates reaffirmed their commitment to working with the KMT. They agreed on a common plan to work for the rural peasants in China. But their relations strained in 1926 and in May 1926 Chiang Kai Shek expelled the communists from responsible posts with the exception of Mao Zedong.

In July 1926 Chiang Kai Shek aimed to unify the country in the Northern Expedition and overthrow the conservative government in Beijing. Mao quit the Kuomintang after fallout with Chiang Kai Shek and established bases for guerilla warfare in China. This was the beginning of Chinese Civil War. With the beginning of the Second World War and the Sino Japanese war the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) and the Chinese Communist PARTY (CCP) of Mao Zedong decided to briefly cease all hostilities. The Kuomintang and the CCP decided to form a united front against Japan. After the end of the Second World War in 1945 hostilities resumed again. In the countryside and in the cities the CCP gained the upper hand. Mao formally assumed the role of the chairman of the CCP IN 1946. The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 while the nationalists retreated to the island of Taiwan. No armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed and the debate continues whether the civil war has officially ended.

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Title: Ancient and Medieval India Paperback 

Author: Poonam Dalal Dahiya

The Church in Medieval Europe

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 Medieval Europe refers to the period in European history beginning with the fall of Western Roman Empire (476 AD) in the 5th century till the end of the 15th century. In the middle ages the Catholic Church had a profound influence over the lives of the people. The Pope held the supreme authority in the middle ages. The Church was the dominant institution in medieval Europe. Its influence was both in matters religious and political. It was the church who upholded the Christian values and propagated the Christian doctrine. Its power also extended to the appointment of kings and monarchs.

 After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century successor and independent kingdoms arose in Europe. The Germanic peoples had swept through Britain, France and Germany which led to a breakdown in the central authority of the Roman Empire. The last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus who was deposed in 476 AD.The Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Anglo Saxons, Goths and the Slavs occupied the eastern, western and central parts of Europe. This led to profound social, political and cultural changes in Europe. A characteristic feature of this period was the increase in urbanization in the cities of Europe. 

By the year 800 AD, The Frankish Empire was ruling over France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. The Anglo Saxons ruled over Britain and various city states existed in Europe. Each of these kingdoms converted to Christianity and as such the Church played a dominant role in Medieval Europe. The Catholic Church claimed to represent all European Christians and had a say in the day to day affairs of the state. Even a poorest peasant had to pay 1/10th of his earnings as tithe to the church. The Church did not pay any taxes and had a right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe. Over a period of time the church became an institution which accumulated wealth through sale of indulgences which led to corruption in the Church. 

Efforts were made to curb the growing power of the Catholic Church. In England, the Magna Carta signed in the year 1215 advocated the separation of the Church and state. It was signed by King John of England though it was annulled later by his barons. It was not till the beginning of the 16th century that the authority of the Roman Catholic Church came to be seriously challenged. 

The Protestant Reformation initiated by Martin Luther began to attack the church for its corruption and traditional dogma. He advocated that people read the Bible themselves and that it was the sole source of all spiritual authority. Martin Luther published his 95 theses. For this the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther. The Reformation subsequently spread to other parts of Europe. Kings and rulers broke away from the authority of the Catholic Church in Europe. 

The Church was the supreme religious and political authority in medieval Europe. But this began to change with the advent of early modern period. With the secularization of Europe in Early modern period people began to view reason and science over religion which led to a decline in the power and authority of the church.

Science and Technology in ancient India

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Ancient Indians  made  significant contribution to science and technology.The earliest evidence is the  Indus valley civilization with its elaborate drainage and sewerage system,well planned cities,use of weights and measures.A number of excavated  sites have yielded  many technological  innovations like the animal drawn plough,cultivation of cotton, use of irrigation and canal system,sophisticated systems of measurement.

With the beginning of  the Vedic period we find evidence of use of large numbers for calculations.The Shatapatha Brahmana (9^th century BCE) provides a set of rules for ritual geometric  constructions. Baudhayana (8^th century BCE) wrote the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra which provides examples of  simple Pythagorean triples. The   Vedic  period also saw the development of astronomy and astrology in ancient India. The  Vedanga  Jyotisa compiled by Lagadha is the earliest Indian astronomical text which explains the astronomical calculations and calendrical studies. The Vedanga Jyotisa being a religious text  is also related to astrology. It  gives  information  regarding   lunar and  solar months, eclipses  and  the  various time and seasons of the year.

In medicine the Sushruta  Samhita is an ayurvedic text  containing 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses and their cure with different herbs. It also has  a detailed study of human anatomy. Cataract surgery was also known to Sushruta. In the 5^th century BCE Panini made remarkable contributions to phonetics,phonology and morphology.

Kautilya’s  Arthashastra  mentions the use of suspension bridges for the construction of dams. The Vaisheshika school of atomism  proposed by Kanada the Indian philosopher who lived in the 600BCE was  the earliest theory of atom in India. In the field of Mathematics Aryabhatta gave the concept of zero. The decimal system and the binary numbers  were also invented by ancient Indians. The Hindu Arabic numeral system from 1 to 9 originated in India which spread to Europe through the Middle East. In the 12^th century Bhaskara stated the calculus theorem which is now known as Rolle ’s Theorem. Indigo, a dye and its production and processing originated in India. The crystallization of sugar was also discovered during the Gupta dynasty. Glass making and its various techniques originated in India. The iron pillar at Delhi is also an example of innovation due to the fact that it stood  without rust for 2000 years.

Coin making also received an impetus in ancient India. Coins of bronze, copper and silver have been found at various sites throughout India. A characteristic feature of these coins is the sophisticated design and forging techniques by which these coins have been made.

Ancient Indians were skilled in science and technology before Europe made significant scientific innovations. Though, we can say with certainty that they were well ahead of time but the technological innovations in ancient India stands as a fact before the West that the Indian accomplishment to science and technology cannot be overlooked.

The emergence,rise and decline of Buddhism in ancient India.

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When we hear about Buddhism, we converse about Gautam Buddha and his philosophical ideas.  But do we really know who Gautam Buddha was?

Gautam Buddha born between 6th century BCE- 4th century BCE was the founder of the Buddhist religion in India. Born in a  Kshatriya family in Lumbini, Nepal. Gautam Buddha was a prince who belonged to the Shakya clan.

When Gautam Buddha was young he witnessed scenes where he saw an old man with a stick, a dead body being taken to a cemetery , a poor man begging . This completely changed his outlook towards life. He investigated the  root  cause of all these problems and came to the conclusion that human life was full of sorrows and sufferings.

After  seeing this, he gave up his princely life and started meditating under a tree. After years of meditation Buddha became enlightened and attracted followers which became his disciples. For preaching the Buddhist philosophy he used the language of Pali. Over a period of time his followers came to be known as  Bhikkus or Monks.This was the beginning of Buddhism in India and subsequently it spread to East-Asia, South-east Asia and Central Asia.

Gautam Buddha emphasized the doctrine of transmigration of soul until it attains a state of Nirvana. He was against the prevailing caste system in ancient India. After his death, Buddhism eventually split into two schools of thought – “The Theravada school of Buddhism” and “The Mahayana school of Buddhism”. The Theravada school of Buddhism is the leading school in Srilanka,Myanmar,Laos and Cambodia. They believe that it is the most complete form of Buddhism. It lays stress on Spirituality, individual enlightenment,pure thoughts and actions, self discipline and it has a separate role for monks whereas Mahayana school of Buddhism emphasizes complete enlightenment and it is mostly prevalent in Korea, Japan, China,Vietnam, Tibet, Bangladesh, Malaysia. Over the course of time monasteries were established throughout India .

Initially Buddhism was confined only to eastern India but with the passage of time kings patronized Buddhism.The most famous of all these was the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka who converted to Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga.He sent missionaries to various parts of India and throughout East Asia,Central Asia and Southeast asia. After Ashoka the Greco Bactrians, Indo Greeks and the Kushanas patronized Buddhism.The main reason for the rise of Buddhism in Ancient India was that it was against the rituals and caste system prevalent in the Hindu religion at that time. Also Buddha preached in the language of the common people which was Pali.

Buddhism also had a  cultural impact on the art and architecture of  ancient India as exemplified by the Ajanta and Ellora caves where Buddha is shown in a symbolic expression meditating. Also the Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is another example of Buddhist architecture. The Amaravati stupa in Andhra Pradesh though ruined is also a testimony to Buddhist architecture.

Buddhism eventually began to decline in India .A number of causes have been attributed which are loss of royal patronage,regionalization of Indian kingdoms,the reassertion of Brahminical ideology,the rise of Rajputs and the Muslim Invasions.

In short it can be said that Buddhism was a response to the changing social and political conditions in ancient India. Its emergence,rise and decline coincided with the rise and fall of Indian kingdoms .It can be concluded  that Buddhism's philosophical and cultural significance held prominence in ancient India .