The Architecture of Classical civilizations

Classical civilization is the period of history in which architecture evolved and developed during the Greek and Roman periods of classical antiquity. It is a style of architecture in which initially the Greek and later the Greek and the Roman elements fused together to produce buildings such as the Parthenon at Athens, Temple of Hephaestos,the temple of Aphaia at Greece and the Colosseum in Rome, aqueducts in Spain, the Roman temples in France and Roman theaters in Greece.

During the period of the Greek civilization Greek architects constructed some of the finest and most striking buildings and some of their buildings such as temples and theatres became a feature of Greek towns and cities. The Greek concern with simplicity, perspective and harmony in architecture provided the influence for the later Roman architecture. Classical Greek architecture consists of five orders-Doric, Corinthian, Ionic, Tuscan and composite. The Greek architects created the first three and used a combination of latter two to create certain style of column eventually replacing the wooden pillars into the Doric influences. It was a vertical fluted column shaft which was thinner at its top with no base and a simple capital below a square abacus.

The Corinthian order which was invented in Athens in the 5^th century BCE is similar to the Ionic but topped by decorative capital of stylized symbols .The Ionic order with its origins in mid-6^th century BCE in Asia Minor added a base and volute to a straighter, slimmer column. The initial building material was wood which was later replaced by marble. In the Greek temple architecture stone and marble came to be used and certain decorative features of stone and decorative elements have been used displaying the skills of the architects.

The Parthenon of Athens is famous for its Doric and Ionic temples and it was built in the 5^th century BCE at Acropolis to house the statue of Greek goddess Athena and to display the glory of Athens to the world. Other examples of Greek architecture are the gigantic temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion and the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The temples display the sophisticated craftsmanship and use of elaborate symbolisms in their construction.

Another important achievement was the Greek amphitheatre with large courts used for the purpose of religious processions and bull fighting sports. It was an open air and semi-circular arrangement of rows with monumental arches. Theatres were widely used for games and musical competitions.

After the conquest of Greece by the Romans they carried the legacy of the Greeks in their architecture, but they also adopted new architectural techniques and constructed buildings such as the Aqueducts, Roman baths, amphitheatre, granary and basilica. The famous examples of Roman architecture are the Pantheon at Rome, the aqueducts in Spain, the baths of Caracalla in Rome, the Roman amphitheatre at Verona and the Roman temples in France.

In architecture the Romans preferred monolithic columns rather than the Greek method of using several columns stacked on top of each other. Columns also were made to form a part of the wall and function as decorative elements. The best example of this is the Roman Colosseum in Rome. Greek influence is also visible in Roman buildings and especially in the beginning of the Roman republic the Greek style of architecture was favoured.The use of marble and mortar was the primary building material in the Roman buildings. Concrete rubble was also used as a filler material. The roofs of Roman buildings were made of columns of bricks and stucco was also used for the ornamentation and decorative elements in buildings. The Roman aqueducts and bridges were massive structures which were used as a means of conveyance to carry fresh water to the Roman cities. The best example of a Roman aqueduct is at Taracco in Spain. It is constructed of a flat wooden superstructure and it still survives today.

The Roman baths are the finest example of Roman architecture and there is considerable use of arches, domes, buttresses and vaults. These baths were built symmetrically and consisted of cold and hot rooms, fountains and underfloor heating. The exterior of these baths was plain but internally they were magnificent with the lavish use of mosaics, columns and marble statues. The best example of a Roman bath is the baths of Caracalla in Rome.The Romans also built amphitheatres and theatres and their construction is characterised by semi-circular arrangement of rows. The Colosseum is the largest of all Roman amphitheatres. Apart from this the Romans also constructed military structures like the Antonine and Hadrian’s wall. The width of Roman walls varied tremendously from 18cm thinness to 6m thickness.

It can be said that the Greek and the Roman architecture has stood the passage of time and they were magnificent builders. By using a wide range of materials like brick, mortar, marble and stone they mastered architecture and turned it in to an art. The displayed their power and wealth to the world by building such edifices. The amphitheatre and basilica constructed by the Greeks and Romans provided an inspiration for the later Western architecture in the Middle Ages.

The Rise of Modern Europe

Modern Europe is characterized by the beginning of the decline and eventual disappearance of feudalism and growth of mercantilism, capitalism, Industrial revolution and the formation of nation states in Europe. Historians have marked the common features of modern Europe such as the Renaissance, The Protestant Reformation and the European colonization of the Americas, Asia and Africa. The beginning of scientific revolution, Enlightenment and the secularization of politics were also the main factors in the beginning of Modern Europe.

The Middle Ages in Europe witnessed the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope. But by the late 15^th century and the early 16^th century its power began to be challenged. The Church was criticized for its corruption which subsequently led to the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the establishment of new Protestant Churches. In ideas the Renaissance saw a renewed interest in the writings of ancient Greece and Rome and the use of observation as the means of knowledge. These ideas further led to discoveries in the field of science by Galileo, Newton and Copernicus. They proposed the Heliocentric model of the universe which further revolutionized science. The invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg was a milestone in the field of printing.

By the late middle Ages there was a decline in feudalism and serfdom as the number of people who held land under the feudal system declined. In the Middle Ages the nobles held the land in lieu of military service to the king and the farmers paid a part of their produce to the nobles. But this changed with the beginning of the early modern period. Farmers directly paid rent in goods and money. This was the beginning of Capitalism. Around the same time, Britain, France, Spain and Portugal discovered the New World and Christopher Columbus made his first voyage to the Americas.

In religion the early modern period led to an end to the Wars of Religion in Europe and the rise of constitutional and liberal democracies in Britain, France and the unification of Italy and Germany in the 19^th century. The rise of capitalism and mercantilism is also associated with the modern period as the dominant economic theories. Capitalism believes in the private ownership of property and free trade. The origins of capitalism in modern Europe began when the feudal economy of medieval Europe began to shift substantially in 16^th century England as the manorial system had broken down and land came in the hands of fewer landlords with large estates. The serfdom system in feudalism eventually gave way to capitalism as the serfs who were previously bonded to the land in the feudal structure could directly pay a part of their produce in goods and money.

The economic theory of mercantilism became dominant in Europe from the Renaissance to the early modern period. Mercantilism implied an excess of exports over imports and that trade balances should be favourable. The colonial countries served as export markets and supplied raw materials to the mother country. Mercantilism was profitable to the mother country and not to the colonies. For example Britain ruled over India and its economy was so designed so as to maximize the exports of Britain while India became a source of raw material and imports for the British.

In the technological field the Industrial revolution which originated in England in the mid 18^TH century was marked by a gradual change in the methods of production. The invention of the steam power, water frame and the power loom mechanized production in England. Prior to the Industrial Revolution England was a largely agrarian and rural society but the industrial revolution transformed England and subsequently Europe in to an industrialized and urbanized economy. More efficient and mechanized methods of production allowed for greater production of textiles in Britain. The industrial revolution also had an impact on the transportation networks in Britain as road and railway networks became more efficient. George Stephenson invented the steam engine in Britain and the beginning of rail network started in Britain.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 in Britain and the French Revolution of 1789 in France saw the rise of constitutional and democratic institutions in Europe. The Glorious revolution was preceded by the English Civil war in 1642 which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in Britain while the French Revolution of 1789 in France saw the overthrow of Louis XVI and the eventual establishment of people’s sovereignty in France. During the 19^th century Europe experienced the rise of nationalism inspired by the ideals of the French revolution. Though initially suppressed by the monarchs and rulers of Europe nationalism  found its expression in the liberation of people from foreign rule like the Greek War of Independence, The Italian war of Independence and the  unification of Germany after the defeat of France in the Franco Prussian war by Germany .

By the latter half of the 19^th century Britain and Germany rivaled each other in naval supremacy. Secret pacts and treaties were signed by the various European powers which ultimately set the stage for the First World War. The immediate trigger for the First World War was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist. The war caused immense losses in men and material.

It was fought between the Allies (Britain, USA, France, Japan, Italy and Russia) and the Central powers (Germany, Austria, Hungary and Turkey). After the war the Allies emerged victorious and forced Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles.

The League of Nations was formed to establish peace after the First World War. But Germany being forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles and accept humiliating terms after the First World War saw the rise of dictatorship under Adolf Hitler. Italy also saw the rise of Fascism under Benito Mussolini and Japan also followed an aggressive policy in Asia which eventually led to the Second World war. Meanwhile the Russian revolution of 1917 brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia and the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of the Soviet Union.

It can be concluded that Europe from being a feudal and religious society in the Middle Ages saw revolutions and ideas which ultimately signalled the beginning of democracy and scientific thinking among the masses. The beginning of constitutional democracy in Britain and the Ideas of liberty and equality became an inspiration for the American Revolution and the subsequent decolonization of Africa and Asia. Modern Europe owes its democratic institutions largely to these ideals.