The Architecture of Classical civilizations

Classical civilization is the period of history in which architecture evolved and developed during the Greek and Roman periods of classical antiquity. It is a style of architecture in which initially the Greek and later the Greek and the Roman elements fused together to produce buildings such as the Parthenon at Athens, Temple of Hephaestos,the temple of Aphaia at Greece and the Colosseum in Rome, aqueducts in Spain, the Roman temples in France and Roman theaters in Greece.

During the period of the Greek civilization Greek architects constructed some of the finest and most striking buildings and some of their buildings such as temples and theatres became a feature of Greek towns and cities. The Greek concern with simplicity, perspective and harmony in architecture provided the influence for the later Roman architecture. Classical Greek architecture consists of five orders-Doric, Corinthian, Ionic, Tuscan and composite. The Greek architects created the first three and used a combination of latter two to create certain style of column eventually replacing the wooden pillars into the Doric influences. It was a vertical fluted column shaft which was thinner at its top with no base and a simple capital below a square abacus.

The Corinthian order which was invented in Athens in the 5^th century BCE is similar to the Ionic but topped by decorative capital of stylized symbols .The Ionic order with its origins in mid-6^th century BCE in Asia Minor added a base and volute to a straighter, slimmer column. The initial building material was wood which was later replaced by marble. In the Greek temple architecture stone and marble came to be used and certain decorative features of stone and decorative elements have been used displaying the skills of the architects.

The Parthenon of Athens is famous for its Doric and Ionic temples and it was built in the 5^th century BCE at Acropolis to house the statue of Greek goddess Athena and to display the glory of Athens to the world. Other examples of Greek architecture are the gigantic temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion and the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The temples display the sophisticated craftsmanship and use of elaborate symbolisms in their construction.

Another important achievement was the Greek amphitheatre with large courts used for the purpose of religious processions and bull fighting sports. It was an open air and semi-circular arrangement of rows with monumental arches. Theatres were widely used for games and musical competitions.

After the conquest of Greece by the Romans they carried the legacy of the Greeks in their architecture, but they also adopted new architectural techniques and constructed buildings such as the Aqueducts, Roman baths, amphitheatre, granary and basilica. The famous examples of Roman architecture are the Pantheon at Rome, the aqueducts in Spain, the baths of Caracalla in Rome, the Roman amphitheatre at Verona and the Roman temples in France.

In architecture the Romans preferred monolithic columns rather than the Greek method of using several columns stacked on top of each other. Columns also were made to form a part of the wall and function as decorative elements. The best example of this is the Roman Colosseum in Rome. Greek influence is also visible in Roman buildings and especially in the beginning of the Roman republic the Greek style of architecture was favoured.The use of marble and mortar was the primary building material in the Roman buildings. Concrete rubble was also used as a filler material. The roofs of Roman buildings were made of columns of bricks and stucco was also used for the ornamentation and decorative elements in buildings. The Roman aqueducts and bridges were massive structures which were used as a means of conveyance to carry fresh water to the Roman cities. The best example of a Roman aqueduct is at Taracco in Spain. It is constructed of a flat wooden superstructure and it still survives today.

The Roman baths are the finest example of Roman architecture and there is considerable use of arches, domes, buttresses and vaults. These baths were built symmetrically and consisted of cold and hot rooms, fountains and underfloor heating. The exterior of these baths was plain but internally they were magnificent with the lavish use of mosaics, columns and marble statues. The best example of a Roman bath is the baths of Caracalla in Rome.The Romans also built amphitheatres and theatres and their construction is characterised by semi-circular arrangement of rows. The Colosseum is the largest of all Roman amphitheatres. Apart from this the Romans also constructed military structures like the Antonine and Hadrian’s wall. The width of Roman walls varied tremendously from 18cm thinness to 6m thickness.

It can be said that the Greek and the Roman architecture has stood the passage of time and they were magnificent builders. By using a wide range of materials like brick, mortar, marble and stone they mastered architecture and turned it in to an art. The displayed their power and wealth to the world by building such edifices. The amphitheatre and basilica constructed by the Greeks and Romans provided an inspiration for the later Western architecture in the Middle Ages.

The Greek Civilization

The Greek civilization was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world. It had a profound influence over the world as its cultural, artistic, philosophical, political and scientific achievements became the foundation of modern Western culture and is believed as the cradle of civilization. The Greek civilization reached its apex under Alexander the Great and ushered in a period of remarkable achievements.

 The civilization of Greece can be classified in to three periods-the Archaic period, Classical period and the Hellenistic period. The Archaic period of Greek civilization is the period in Greek history following the Greek Dark ages and beginning from the 8^th century BCE to the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. It was the period which witnessed many changes in the language, art, architecture and politics of Greece. The driving force behind these changes was the increase in population of Greece and an increase in the amount of trade which contributed to colonization and an increase in intellectual pursuits. In the Archaic period Greece comprised of city states or polis. However, the polis did not assume the form of socio-political organization in the Archaic period and it only achieved unity in the classical period. Both Athens and Argos for example combined into single settlements near the end of the Archaic period.

The Archaic period of Greece was characterized by the age of tyrants. Historians have given various explanations for the rise of tyranny in the Archaic period. The most popular explanation is given by the Greek philosopher Aristotle who argued that people set up tyrants as a response to the intolerance of the nobility. But there is no proper evidence for the age of tyranny. Historians have also raised doubts about the historicity of the Trojan’s war and over the identity of Homer the author who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.

The Archaic period was followed by the Classical period of Greek history. It refers to the period of Greek history which saw the Persian wars at the start of the 5^th century BCE and the death of Alexander in 323 BCE. The Classical period saw wars and conflicts initially between the Greeks and the Persians and eventually between the Greek city states of Athens and Sparta. The period also saw remarkable progress in the political field. The English word democracy originated from the Greek word demokratia which means ‘’rule by the people’’.

The Greco Persian wars were fought between an alliance of Greek city states of Athens and Sparta on one side and the Persians on the other side. In 498 BCE Greek forces sacked the Persian city of Sardis. In 490 BCE the Persians sent a naval expedition against the Greeks at the battle of Marathon. However, it was at the battle of Thermopylae that the Persians defeated the Greeks. Eventually at the battle of Salamis the Greeks defeated the Persians.

The defeat of the Persians by the Greeks led to the dominance of Athens in the political, economic and cultural fields. Democracy or the rule by the people became the defining feature of the Greek city states. In order to protect the distant territories from future Persian attacks Athens organized a confederacy called as the Delian League in 478 BCE. But the shifting alliances among the various Greek city states led to wars between them. Thucydides, Herodotus and Hippocrates were the most influential of the Greek philosophers. The magnificent Parthenon at Acropolis was built in honour of the Greek goddess Athena.

With the victory of Sparta in the Peloponnesian war and the conflict among the various Greek city states like Corinth, Thebes and Macedon, Philip II of Macedon emerged. Macedon was located at the periphery of the Greek world and had a strong and centralized government compared to most Greek city states. Philip II was an expansionist king and he greatly expanded the Macedonian territory. In 352 BCE he conquered Thessaly and Magnesia and he also formed the League of Corinth. However, he was assassinated and was succeeded by his son Alexander.

Alexander annexed the whole Persian empire and he also conquered Egypt, Asia Minor, Levant, Mesopotamia and parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. The years of constant war eventually led to Alexander’s death in 323 BCE. After Alexander’s death his empire fragmented into small states.

The Hellenistic period of Greek civilization occurred after the death of Alexander during which Greek philosophy, culture, literature, music, theatre, artistic achievements and mathematics found their way into the countries conquered by Alexander. Euclid and Pythagoras were the most eminent Greek mathematicians whose mathematical ideas and Archimedes physical principles became a milestone in the field of science. Greek culture contributed significantly to the fusion of Hellenistic culture and Buddhist architectural elements in art. The Seleucid empire, the Indo Greeks and the Greco Bactrian kingdoms were formed after Alexander in West Asia and the north western parts of India.The legacy of Greek civilization is visible even today as can be seen in the sciences, philosophy and architecture. Though the Romans conquered the Greek civilization Greek influences can still be seen in their architectural buildings.