Economy of medieval India

The economy of medieval India begins with the coming of Muslims to India in the early 13^th century. Before discussing the economic history of medieval India, it is essential to have a glimpse of the economy of ancient and early medieval India in the post Gupta period. From the fifth century AD, the practice of land grants became frequent. The Brahmanas were granted villages free from taxes that were collected by the king from the villages. The beneficiaries of this land grants were given the right to govern the people in the donated villages. Till the fifth century, the ruler retained the rights to these land grants, and the Brahmanas not only collected taxes from the peasants and artisans but also maintained law and order in the villages granted to them. Thus, the power of the king was heavily undermined from the end of the Gupta period.

Especially in the post Gupta period the agrarian economy underwent significant changes. Landed beneficiaries could neither cultivate land nor own it. The monasteries and Brahmanas who were the beneficiaries of these land grants hired peasants and slaves to work on these lands. Eventually, a landed aristocracy came to dominate the economy of ancient and early medieval India at the expense of the king. Thus, royal power was eroded and historians have come to use the term Indian feudalism in the context of these land grants.

With the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate the land revenue policy underwent considerable reforms. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji major land, agrarian and fiscal reforms were introduced in north India. Different categories of land existed during the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. The first was Iqta and for administration and land revenue collection, the state was divided into tracts called iqtas under iqtadars or muqtis. An iqta holder collected revenue from the land and remitted the balance to the central government. The iqtadars system as a means of collecting tax and distribution of revenues to the ruling class. The second category of land was khalisa or the royal land. This type of land was under the control of the government.

Alauddin Khalji levied different taxes on lands such as kharaj, charai, and ghari. The whole land was measured and a fixed portion of the state was assessed on the basis of these measurements. In addition to these, the strength of middlemen or khuts, muqaddams, and choudharies was considerably weakened, and thus the produce directly went from the farmers to the state. The revenue administration established by Alauddin Khalji was continued by his successors. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty fixed the share of state at 1/10^th of the total produce in contrast to Alauddin’s 50 percent. Muhammad bin Tughlaq made several changes in the revenue administration. He ordered the compilation of a register of the expenditure and income of the sultanate and introduced a uniform system of land revenue. He established a department of agriculture called Diwan-i-kohi with the intention of bringing more land under cultivation. Firoz Shah Tughlaq provided loans to the farmers and encouraged irrigation. He had got dug four canals for the purpose of irrigation and increased the salaries of the revenue officers so that the peasants are not harassed by the revenue officials. Firoz Shah introduced four taxes i.e. The Zakat, Jaziya, Khiraj, and Khamo.Khiraj was the land tax, Khams means 1/5^th of the booty captured during wars, Zakat a   tax on Muslims for religious purposes and Jaziya a tax levied on Hindus.

With the beginning of the Mughal rule in the 16^th century the economy of medieval India underwent significant changes. Babur and Humayun continued to follow the land and revenue administration of the Delhi Sultanate. However, it was Akbar who is credited with completely reorganizing the land revenue system. Akbar introduced the Zabti system and under this system, the cultivable lands were measured. After the measurement of the land, the state’s share was assessed on the basis of the produce of the land. The land was classified into four categories Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar.

Polaj was the first category of land which was readily cultivable. Throughout the season it had some crop ready. The second land was Parauti which was fallow land, Chachar was the third category of land which had to be left for three or four years to regain fertility and the fourth category of land was Banjar or barren land. The state share was calculated on the basis of these three grades of land and their average was the share of the state. The state share was 1/3^rd of the total produce and the share was paid either in cash or kind though the former was preferred.

Another aspect of The Mughal empire was the jagirdari system. The jagirdari system in the Mughal empire was a system in which the jagirdars or nobles were granted jagirs (landed estates) in lieu of their services to the emperor. The jagirdars and the zamindars formed the backbone of the Mughal empire and they were paid in cash or kind. However, in the late 17^th century during the reign of Aurangzeb the jagirdari crisis eventually led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire as there was not enough land for the jagirdars which led to the jagirdars forming their own independent states.

Trade and commerce also played an important role in the economy of medieval India as intra-regional ,inter-regional and external trade contributed to the economy of medieval India.Agra,Burhanpur, Aurangabad, Delhi , and Lahore were the centres of overland trade between India and Central Asia whereas seaborne trade was conducted between Surat,Cambay, Bharuch, and Arabia. North India imported luxury items and exported indigo and food grains. Silk, spices, and various other items were exported by India to other countries. The Bengal Subah alone accounted for over 50% to 80% of the exports and imports of India. By far the most important development in the economic history of medieval India was Hundis (Bills of exchange) as it amounted to cashless transactions in the Mughal empire.

With the beginning of the 17^th century the Europeans came to dominate the Indian trade as various European powers such as Portuguese, British, Dutch, and French established their factories and posts on the coastal cities of India. The Banjaras emerged as the most dominant class of traders in the economy of medieval India. Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the banjaras for the transportation of grain to the city markets. Mughal emperor Jahangir mentions the banjaras as carrying grains on their bullocks and transporting them to the cities. It can be summed up that the economy of medieval India was one of prosperity and growth until the advent of the British rule in India.

The Mughal empire and Akbar

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605) was the greatest of the Mughal emperors. He is considered as the architect of the Mughal empire in India and it was during his reign that the Mughal empire covered almost the whole of India from Afghanistan in the north to the river Godavari in the south. Born on 15^th October 1542 in Sindh and who became the king at the age of 14 before assuming imperial power Akbar is known in history for his religious tolerance and as a patron of the arts, architecture and for his introduction of the Mansabdari system of administration in the Mughal empire.

The Mughal empire had been established by Akbar’s grandfather Babur by defeating the last sultan of the Delhi Sultanate Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.After Babur’s death in 1530 his son Humayun became the next Mughal emperor. But he failed to maintain the conquests of his father and was driven in to exile by Sher Shah Suri of the Sur dynasty. After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545 Humayun took advantage of the weakness of the Sur empire and managed to regain power in 1555 but ruled only for a few months before he died in 1556.Humayun’s confidant Bairam Khan helped Akbar to gain the throne at the age of 14 and acted as his regent. But the kingdom which Akbar inherited from his father Humayun was only confined to Punjab and the Afghans were still challenging the Mughals in north India.

The Afghan general Hemu had captured Gwalior and Agra and had defeated Akbar’s forces in the Battle of Delhi in October 1556.However at the Second Battle of Panipat fought on 5^th November 1556 the Mughal forces led by Bairam Khan and Akbar defeated Hemu which eventually paved the way for the reestablishment of Mughal rule in India. After the Second Battle of Panipat Akbar occupied Delhi, Agra and Gwalior. Akbar furthered his conquests to include Kabul, Kashmir, Sindh, Baluchistan and Kandahar in northern India. Gujarat, Bengal and Orissa were also annexed to the Mughal empire. Akbar turned his attention towards the south and conquered Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. However, it was the kingdom of Mewar which resisted against the Mughals. The Battle of Haldighati fought in 1576 between Maharana Pratap of Mewar and the Mughals finally led to the annexation of Mewar by Akbar.

Akbar’s success in maintaining his empire is attributed to his tolerant religious policies and his appointment of Rajputs in his administration. Through diplomacy and matrimonial alliances Akbar had won the confidence of the Rajputs and this was visible in his appointment of Rajputs to top administrative posts. He did not force Islam on the majority Hindu population of India, and he was the first Muslim ruler to have abolished jazia (poll tax on non-Muslims) in the year 1579.

In religion Akbar was liberal and he participated in the festivals of other faiths and in 1575 in Fatehpur Sikri he built a temple(Ibadat Khana) where he held frequent discussions with people of other faiths including Hindus,Zoroastrians,Christians,yogis and other sects.He also allowed the Jesuits to build a church at Agra and banned the slaughter of cattle due to his respect for Hindu customs.

Akbar also started the Sulh-i-Kul which in Arabic means peace with all. The Din-i-Ilahi founded by Akbar in 1582 had its origin in the Sulh-i-kul and it combined and promoted interfaith dialogue and equal treatment for all regardless of religious beliefs. The Din-i-Ilahi combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship. Its ideas were an amalgamation of different religious beliefs.

The Infallibility Decree issued by Akbar in 1579 weakened the power of the Ulemas and the Mullahs. According to this decree Akbar became the supreme arbiter in religious and civil affairs. Akbar himself started the practice of reading Khutba from the Fatehpuri mosque in Agra.

In administration the Mansabdari system was introduced by Akbar. The term mansab stands for position, status or rank and it was the hierarchy of mansabdars which constituted an important part in the Mughal administration. The mansabdars belonged to the nobility and under this system the mansabdars or nobles were granted the rights to hold a jagir which means revenue assignments for their services rendered and these nobles were in the direct control of the king. Mansabdars were either paid in cash(naqad) or in the form of assignments of land(jagir)out of which they had the right for the collection of land revenue and other taxes through an authority appointed by the emperor.

Thus the Mansabdari system and the jagirdari system became an integral part of the Mughal dministration.The mansab or rank was designated by dual representation one by personal rank(zat) and the other by cavalry rank(sawar).The mansabdars  were given both ranks of zat and sawar and the emperor was the sole authority that decreased, resumed and conferred the mansab.

In arts Akbar had navratnas or Nine gems in his court which were Tansen, Birbal, Abul Fazal, Raja Todarmal, Shaikh Faizi, Mulla Do Piyaza, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Raja Man Singh and Fakir Azao Din. Akbar also ordered the translation of Hindu scriptures into Persian. Sanskrit, Hindi and Persian received royal patronage during the reign of Akbar.In architecture Akbar built the Agra fort and the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. The tomb of Humayun is another architectural masterpiece built during the reign of Akbar. The Agra fort served as the residence of the Mughal emperors till 1638 when the capital of the Mughals was shifted from Agra to Delhi by Shah Jahan.

The role of great women in the Mughal Empire

Image source: Nur Jahan ((History and chronicles, wordpress.com)

Image source:  Mumtaz Mahal (travelogyindia.com)

The Mughal Empire founded by Babur by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat was the largest empire in medieval India. After Babur, Humayun came, then Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. The role of great Mughal women is largely ignored by historians. From wives to mothers to daughters each of them played an important role in the Mughal period.

They excelled in the arts, poetry, painting, music and administration. It was they who worked behind the curtains acting as regents, and advisors to the Mughal emperors. The most famous of the Mughal  women were Khanzada Begum, Gulbadan Begum, Maham Begum and Bega Begum.When Akbar came to the throne at the young age of 13 foster mothers such as Jiji Anaga and Maham Anaga became powerful. With the growth of the Mughal empire the wives of the emperors gained influence. So there was Harkha Bai, Salima Sultan Begum, Nurjahan and Mumtaz Mahal. As the empire prospered under Shah Jahan unmarried daughters became powerful like Jahanara Begum and Roshanara Begum. Finally under the last great mughal Aurangzeb we have his daughters like Zeb un nissa and Zeenat un nisa.

The early Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun had great respect for their mothers and grandmothers. Babur and his son Humayun had great respect for their elder sister Khanzada Begum. When they were invading India on horseback it was Khanzada  who secured Babur’s’ safety from the Uzbek warlord  Shaibani Khan.

There was no distinction between public and private space during the period of the earlier Mughals. Gulbadan Begum, Babur’s daughter and Humayun’s sister was asked by Akbar her grandnephew to write a biography of Babur and Humayun called Humayunnama. It has been translated in to English from Persian and is a major source about the life of the Mughal Women. With the coming of Akbar to the throne his  foster mother Maham Anaga played a prominent role in the Mughal court. She controlled the empire as regent when Akbar was young. A highly shrewd and ambitious woman she advanced her own authority in the Mughal court. When Akbar married a Rajput princess Harkha Bai it changed its outlook towards the Rajputs and led to a gradual shift in his attitude towards Hindus.

Akbar gave her the title Mariam-uz-Zamani and she bore him a son which later ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Jahangir. When Jahangir became the emperor he married Mehr-un-nissa and conferred on her the title of Nur Jahan meaning light of the world. After her marriage to Jahangir she swiftly rose in ranks and became the real power behind the throne. The emperor consulted her on every matter and her approval was necessary on any imperial seal. In the later years of Jahangir’s reign the Nurjahan junta came to dominate the Mughal court. Itimad ud Daula the father of Nurjahan, Asaf khan, Nurjahan’s brother and prince Khurram (the future emperor Shah Jahan) formed an alliance which came to be known as the Nur Jahan junta. Asaf Khan married his daughter Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) to prince Khurram (Shah jahan). Shah Jahan conferred on her the title of Mumtaz Mahal and the TajMahal was built by Shah Jahan in the memory of his favourite wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal was a religious woman and she took keen interest in the day to day administration of the empire. She had no political aspirations in contrast to her aunt Nur Jahan who wielded considerable influence in the Mughal court during the reign of Jahangir. She bore Shah Jahan fourteen children and died an untimely death in 1631. The TajMahal at Agra was built by Shah Jahan as the final resting place for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Shah jahan’s daughters Jahanara and Roshanara also played an active role in the Mughal court. When the war of succession broke out between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb over the Mughal throne. Jahanara supported his brother the heir apparent Dara Shikoh. Eventually Aurangzeb ascended the mughal throne by defeating and killing all his brothers.

Aurangzeb’s daughters Zeb un nissa and Zeenat un nissa also held important positions during his reign. Both were known for their deep knowledge of Islam and extensive charity. Aurangzeb’s chief wife Dilras Banu Begum also known as Rabia-ud-daurani had a deep influence over his religious policies.

Thus it can be said that the role of the great women in the Mughal Empire cannot be underestimated. They played different roles as wives, mothers and daughters. From, the beginnings of the empire by Babur till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.  It was the Mughal women who worked as the real power behind the throne of the Mughal emperors.