Marriage customs in ancient India

Marriage customs in ancient India were laid down by the religious texts. The Shastras prescribed marriage as a Samskar for women. Marriage was regarded as necessary to continue the family line and after marriage, the woman acquired the status of ardhangani(wifehood) and grahlaxmi. The Hindu law stressed a marriage in which a bride adorned with ornaments is married to a suitable bridegroom before the nuptial fire. However, there were deviations in the forms of marriage and eight types of marriages were recognized in ancient India. Thus, attitudes towards marriage in ancient India changed with the prevailing circumstances and conditions.

In the Vedic period marriage was seen as necessary for the desire of offspring and sons were particularly favored over daughters. The necessity of sons was prayed for along with cattle and land but there was no desire for daughters. The society in ancient India was patriarchal and the son alone had the right to perform the funeral rites for his father and continue the family line. A woman who could not bear a son was looked down upon. The marriage ceremony in ancient India commenced with the bridegroom holding the hand of the bride and leading her around the fire. These acts were important in a marriage and the bridegroom became the husband and the bride his wife(Patni).

There was considerable freedom on the young persons in the selection of their future husband or wife and the consent of parents or brother was not necessary. The Rigveda mentions the newly married wife taking up the most respectable position in her new household and she had considerable authority over her husband’s brother, father, and unmarried sister. The hymns in Rigveda also mentions the practice of having a childless widow to cohabit with her brother in law until the birth of a son. Widow remarriage was permitted under certain circumstances in ancient India. However, with the passage of time there were many restrictions placed in marriages. The Shatapatha Brahmana has a certain set of rules regarding marriage in ancient India. Marriage within the gotra and outside the gotra were more frequent. Brothers and sisters were not allowed to marry before their elder brother or sister got married.

Widow remarriage was allowed and polygamy also existed in ancient India. The first wife enjoyed all the privileges of a wife in religion and society but in Yajnavalkya the two wives enjoyed equal rights. Conjugal morality was generally high and infidelity on the part of the wife was unknown. The prevalence of dowry in marriages existed in ancient India. The marriage ceremony described in the Rigveda and emphasized in the Atharvaveda stressed that the bridegroom had to mount a stone on the bride before grasping her hand. The ideal family life was stressed in which the newly married wife becomes the mistress of her husband’s home is mentioned in the Rigveda. The term Patni(wife) mentioned in the Brahmanas indicates the wife’s equal share in the religious and social life of her husband while the term Jaya indicates only her conjugal position. The practice of sati did not exist during the early Vedic period of ancient India.

The woman held an honorable position in the household and marriages in ancient India were accompanied by song and dance. However, the presence of a widow was deemed undesirable in marriage. The dharma sutras speak of about the widow’s right in the property of her husband and hence the practice of sati in ancient India can be ruled out. The Vasishta Dharma sutras mention about widow remarriage under certain circumstances so widow remarriage was not strictly prohibited. The Baudhayana Dharma sutra speaks about a barren woman who could not bear children should be abandoned. So, the abandonment of the wife was allowed but not divorce. The Dharma sutras also agree that a woman on reaching puberty should be given in marriage at a proper time by her father but she can also choose her own husband after waiting for three years or months. The later religious texts advocated that men are the masters of women, their father protects them in childhood, their husbands in youthhood, and sons in old age.

During the epic period, major changes took place in the institution of marriage. Marriage between members of the same caste was allowed however marriage with a girl of the same gotra was prohibited. The chastity of women has also emphasized especially physical chastity and women had to obey her husband. The marriageable age was lowered and unmarried women were looked down upon. The growing importance of physical chastity gradually led to the discouragement of widow remarriage, divorce, and the growing practice of sati. Kautilya allows the remarriage of a woman whose husband has died, has gone abroad, or had become an ascetic. However, the Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya prohibited widow remarriage. The Agni Purana and the Parasara Smriti recognizes that a woman is allowed to remarry in the lifetime of her husband if he is lost, is impotent, or is an outcaste.

Divorce was generally recognized in ancient India. Kautilya allowed divorce to both men and women while Manu was not in favor of divorce for women. Manu allowed divorce for wife by the husband but not for a husband by wife. A woman who is unable to bear a son to her husband can be abandoned by her husband. The practice of sati was prevalent and, in the Mahabharata, there are several instances of women burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands,

The caste system had become well established during this period and marriages were based on caste. Medatithi allowed inter-caste marriage between a Brahmana and a Kshatriya while marriage between a Brahmana and a sudra woman was prohibited. The Narada Purana proclaims that a marriage of twice-born men with other castes is prohibited in Kaliyuga.The wife was expected to be obedient and faithful to her husband to the point of shampooing her husband’s feet. The husband also had the right to beat his wife on her back with a rope. But this did not imply actual beating and it was only used as a corrective measure.