The French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte

The French revolution (1789-1799) was a turning point in the history of modern Europe that started in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s. By the late 18^th century France was in crisis due to the despotic rule of King Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty. During this period the people of France revolted against absolute monarchy and the feudal nature of French nobility. The ideals of equality before the law and Enlightenment inspired a change in the French society. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy and replaced it with a republic. The Revolution eventually culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte.

The causes of the French Revolution  were a series of bad harvests coupled with Louis XVI costly wars, rising social and economic inequality, political ideals inspired by enlightenment, economic mismanagement and droughts and overtaxed peasants. The ‘Ancien Regime’ or the French social and political system of the Bourbon dynasty ruled over France in the 18^th century. The social and political structure of the French society was characterized by feudalism and absolutism. In 1774 Louis XVI ascended the throne of France in the middle of a financial crisis in which France was suffering from budget deficit and bankruptcy due to France’s costly involvement in the Seven Years war and later the American Revolutionary War. The king proposed reforms to deal with the poor economic condition of France but the clergy and the nobles did not want to lose any of their privileges.

The Estates General was composed of the clergy, nobility and the common people. The clergy and the nobility which comprised of the first and the second Estates did not pay any taxes whereas the third Estate which comprised of peasants and ordinary citizens had to bear the brunt of taxes. The rule of King Louis XVI was absolute since he believed in the divine rights of kings. The king convened a meeting of the Estates General in Versailles on 5^th May 1789 but the nobles and the clergy were not in favor of any reforms. The Third Estate met at the Tennis Court in June 1789 and wanted popular sovereignty in France leading up to the overthrow of Louis XVI beginning with the storming of the Bastille prison on 14^th July 1789 till the execution of Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette by the revolutionaries in 1792. The people of France formed a National Constituent Assembly and abolished privileges and feudalism in France. Also the tithe (a 10% tax for the church) gathered by the clergy was also abolished.

On 26^th August 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Regime the Church had been the largest landowner in the country owning about 10% of the land. The growing resentment of the people of France towards the Church led to a decline in religion in France. The first French Republic was proclaimed on 10^th August 1792. This period signalled the end of monarchy, the establishment of the National convention and the Reign of Terror and the subsequent rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in France. In 1792 and 1793 Paris was plagued by discontent due to food shortages which led to the Reign of terror in France. The Reign of terror (1793-1794) was a period of massacres and numerous public executions which took place as a response to anticlerical resentment in France initiated by Maximilian Robespierre. He was ultimately executed by the revolutionaries. Meanwhile, France was engaged in the French Revolutionary wars with Britain and other European powers. In this scene, Napoleon Bonaparte, a statesman and military leader rose to prominence in France in 1799. He became the emperor of the first French Republic in 1804 after seizing political power in a 1799 coup’d’etat. Napoleon conquered every European state and he was unchallenged in the battlefield. However, his military successes suffered a reversal and he was forced to abdicate. He went on exile in Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. On February 26, 1815 he returned to France once again and gathered forces against a coalition of Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia. However, in June 1815 the French were crushed by the British at the battle of Waterloo. In October 1815, Napoleon was once again exiled to the island of Saint Helena where he died on May 5, 1821.

Mahajanapadas in ancient India

Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org

The Mahajanapadas existed in ancient India from 600 BCE to 300 BCE. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas in ancient India which existed as oligarchic and republican monarchies. The word Mahajanapada means great realm from maha “great” and janapada “foothold of a people”. Buddhist texts such as Anguttara Nikaya give frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which developed and  evolved in India  from Gandhara in northwest India to Anga in eastern India.

The period of the later Vedic age (1000-600 BC) saw the conquest of northern India by the Aryan tribes. After the end of the Indus Valley civilization with the availability of fertile land and iron production centers in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh tribes (janas) of the later Vedic period decided to form their own territorial communities eventually giving rise to new and permanent settlements called states or Janapadas. The production of iron played an important role in the expansion of the territorial states of the region leading to the formation of large states or Mahajanapadas. Prior to the beginning of Buddhism in India these tribes settled in northern, central and eastern parts of India. The Mahajanapadas became the centres of political, religious and cultural activity. Vedic Hinduism, Sramana Buddhism and the languages of Prakrit and Sanskrit became the chief religion and languages of these Mahajanapadas. Tribal identity was the main factor by which the territory of a particular state was identified.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas were frequently at war with each other and in the end the Magadha kingdom was victorious leading to the formation of the Magadha Empire in eastern India. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are listed below:

1.      Magadha

Magadha was one of the prosperous kingdoms in ancient India and the most prominent of all the Mahajanapadas. Patliputra (modern Patna) was the capital of Magadha and it was bounded on three sides by rivers. It consisted of several dynasties like Haryanka dynasty, Shishunaga dynasty and Nanda dynasty. According to ancient texts, Brihadrata was the earliest ruler of Magadha. After him, Bimbisara (544 BC- 492 BC), a man of political ambition expanded his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquests. His first conquest started with Anga and he was a contemporary of Gautam Buddha. Ajatashatru killed his own father Bimbisara to get the throne. He conquered Vaishali, Anga and Kashi . The Nanda dynasty came to the throne.      But there is no proper evidence for the founder of the Nanda Dynasty .The Nandas ruled for 22 years (345 BC-322 BC). Dhanananda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. His empire extended from eastern India till Punjab. Chandragupta Maurya with the help of his guru Chanakya conquered Magadha and thus the Nanda dynasty came to an end. Its capital was Rajgiri and later Patliputra.

2.      Gandhara

Gandhara in Peshawar in modern Pakistan was the greatest city in ancient India. References to Gandhara have been made in the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The capital of Gandhara was Takshila and its university the Takshila University was a renowned centre of learning in the world. Scholars from all over the world came to the university to seek knowledge.

3.      Kamboja

Kamboja was a republican monarchy situated on either side of the Hindukush mountain range in Central Asia. Clans of Kamboja are believed to have established their settlements in India. The Ashokan Rock Edicts mention the Kambojas as tribes who had crossed the Indus river to establish themselves in India. Its capital was Rajapura.

4.      Kuru

During the time of the Buddha, Kuru was ruled by Korayvya, a titular chieftain. Its capital was Indraprastha (modern Delhi) and its people were known for their sound health and deep wisdom. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Panchalas and the Yadavas. In the 6^th and 5^th century BCE republican form of government existed in the Kuru kingdom. Kautilya”s Arthashastra written in Sanskrit in the 4^th century BCE also has a mention of the Kurus. Its capital was Hastinapur and Indraprastha.

5.      Kosala

The kingdom of Kosala was located in close proximity to Magadha and its capital was Ayodhya. It was bounded on three sides by river Ganges in the south, river Gandak in the east and the Himalaya Mountains in the north. The Vedic texts mention that Kosala was the biggest and most powerful kingdom to have ever existed. During the times of Buddha and Mahavira king Prasenajit ruled over the Kosala kingdom. It was finally annexed by Magadha.

6.      Malla

The Mallas of the Malla Kingdom were a powerful people who lived in Northern south Asia. Buddhist texts state the kingdom was a republican dominion comprised of nine territories. Malla had monarchical forms of government but later moved towards republican forms of government. Ancient cities like Kushinagar and Pava belonged to the Malla kingdom. Kushinagar and Pava hold a special significance for Jains and Buddhists as Lord Mahavira and Gautam Buddha stayed there for a long time. Its capital was Kushinagar and Pava.

7.      Panchala

The Panchala was located east of the Kuru kingdom between the river Ganges and the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. It was originally a monarchical kingdom but turned in to a republican dominion between the 6^th and 5^th century BCE. Kautilya’s  Arthashastra also makes a mention of the Panchala kingdom. It was later annexed by the Mauryan empire and also by the Gupta empire. Its capital was  Ahicchitra.

8.      Vajji

Vajji was the most prominent kingdom of the Mahajanapadas in ancient India. The Jaina text Bhagvati sutra and the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya mention the Vajji kingdom. It was located towards the north of the river Ganges and the river Gandaki in the west. The Gandaki river separated the Vajji kingdom from the Malla and Kosala kingdom. Its capital city was Vaishali.

9.      Matsya

Founded by an Indo Aryan Vedic tribe the Matsya kingdom was located to the south of Kuru kingdom and west of river Yamuna. The Yamuna river separated the Matsya kingdom from the Panchala kingdom. Viratnagar was the capital city of the Matsya kingdom. Its political power began to decline and it was ultimately conquered by the Kuru kingdom.

10.  Chedi

The kingdom of Chedi finds mention in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Its ruler was Shishupala who was an ally of the kings of Kuru and Magadha. Its capital was Suktimati. However the exact location of modern Suktimati has not been found yet.

11.  Kashi

The kingdom of Kashi with its capital at Varanasi was one of the most prominent of the Mahajanapadas. It was bounded by river Varuna to the north and river Assi in the south. Kashi was one of the most prosperous kingdoms in ancient India. Kashi was in constant conflict with the kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha and Anga.

12.  Surasena

The kingdom of Surasena was located to the west of river Yamuna and to the east of the kingdom of Matsya. Buddhism propagated during the rule of king of Surasena, Avantiputra was the earliest disciples of Buddha. The capital of the Surasena kingdom was Mathura where the worship of Krishna became prominent. It was later annexed by the Magadha Empire.

13.  Vatsa

Vatsa was situated near present day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh had a monarchical form of government. Its king was Udayana with its capital at Kaushambi. Udayana initially opposed the teachings of the Buddha but later became a follower of Buddhism and made it its state religion. Kaushambi was a prominent city and attracted a number of wealthy merchants.

14.  Avanti

The kingdom of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh was one of the great monarchies that existed in ancient India. The river Narmada was the principal source of water for the kingdom of Avanti. Avanti was a great centre of Buddhism in ancient India. It was later conquered by the Magadhan kingdom.

15.  Anga

The Atharvaveda describes the Anga as of Indo Aryan ethnicity. Over a period of time the kingdom of Anga became a great centre of trade attracting merchants from the neighbouring kingdoms. Anga’s main rival was Magadha and their kingdoms were separated by the river Champa. Bimbisara ultimately conquered Anga. Its capital was Champa.

16.  Assaka

The kingdom of Assaka was located in southern India near the river Godavari. The river Godavari was the chief source of water for the Assaka kingdom. Its capital was Potana (Potali) in present day Maharashtra. King Brahmadatta ruled over the Assaka kingdom.

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Slavery in the British Empire

The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century the foremost global power in the world. Its influence extended in the political, cultural, legal and linguistic domain. The Age of Discovery led to the European exploration of the globe and in the process the establishment of large overseas colonies.

At the end of the 14^th century Europeans began to take people from Africa against their will. In 1672 Charles II gave the Royal African Company (RAC) the monopoly to supply African slaves to the British colonies. These slaves were mainly transported to the Carribean and American colonies to work as indentured labourers. At times the slaves resisted and there were frequent rebellions by slaves against their masters. The slaves lived in inhuman conditions and many of them died of disease, starvation and misery. The white colonists claimed racial superiority over the enslaved black Africans. Between 1698 and 1797, 75,000 slaves were transported from Africa to the Carribeans through the Atlantic slave trade. It was estimated in 1796 that every year about 72,000 slaves were transported from Africa to the West Indies.

Over the next 20 years the Royal African Company (RAC) carried over 90,000 slaves to the Americas. In the beginning of the 18^th century the RAC lost its monopoly to supply slaves to the British colonies. Between the 16^th and the 19^th centuries up to 15 million Africans were carried as slaves to the Americas. The Church of England encouraged the British slave trade and owned a large number of slaves. However, many church members condemned slavery and opposed it. Two of them, Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson established the society for the abolition of the slave trade in 1787. In the beginning of the 19^th century there were various efforts made for the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. The British Parliament finally abolished slavery in 1833 but it was not until 1838 that slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire. After the abolition of the slave trade new societies emerged in America and many Africans were displaced from their homelands. Britain used racial superiority to justify the enslavement of Africans.

Thus, it can be said that the slave trade in the British Empire was an outcome of the European colonization of the Americas, Africa and Asia. It was a profit for the slave owners to own slaves and engage in the enslavement of Africans. However, in the present context with the advancement of human rights and democracy slavery no longer exists since all nations of the world have recognized the natural rights of human beings.

The Communist Revolution in China (1911-1949)

Image source: history.howstuffworks.com

The declaration of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Zedong on 1^st October 1949 brought to an end the conflict between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT). Historians trace the origins of the 1949 revolution in China to sharp inequalities in Chinese society. The rule of the Qing dynasty or the Manchu dynasty (1644-1911) was characterized by high rates of rent, usury and concentration of wealth in the hands of village chiefs and landlords. Also China was under the pressure of Western powers leading to the opium wars, unequal treaties and the Boxer Rebellion. Extreme internal inequality combined with external aggression was the factors which led to the rise of nationalism, class consciousness and leftism among the Chinese population.

The Xinhai revolution of 1911 brought to an end the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. The people of China came in to contact with the western ideas. Dr Sun Yat Sen (1866-1925) advocated a modern state in China based up on the Western ideals. He formed the Kuomintang or the Nationalist Party in China in 1921. He was instrumental in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). He was the first provisional president of the Republic of China. After the death of Sun Yat Sen in 1925 Chiang Kai Shek became the head of the Kuomintang or the Nationalist party. Meanwhile Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao had formed the Chinese Communist party in 1921. They believed in the ideology of the dictatorship of the proletariat through revolutionary means. Inspired by the Russian revolution they formed small Marxist groups throughout China and wanted to gain power through revolutionary means. At the third congress of the Communist party in Shanghai in June 1923 the delegates reaffirmed their commitment to working with the KMT. They agreed on a common plan to work for the rural peasants in China. But their relations strained in 1926 and in May 1926 Chiang Kai Shek expelled the communists from responsible posts with the exception of Mao Zedong.

In July 1926 Chiang Kai Shek aimed to unify the country in the Northern Expedition and overthrow the conservative government in Beijing. Mao quit the Kuomintang after fallout with Chiang Kai Shek and established bases for guerilla warfare in China. This was the beginning of Chinese Civil War. With the beginning of the Second World War and the Sino Japanese war the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) and the Chinese Communist PARTY (CCP) of Mao Zedong decided to briefly cease all hostilities. The Kuomintang and the CCP decided to form a united front against Japan. After the end of the Second World War in 1945 hostilities resumed again. In the countryside and in the cities the CCP gained the upper hand. Mao formally assumed the role of the chairman of the CCP IN 1946. The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 while the nationalists retreated to the island of Taiwan. No armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed and the debate continues whether the civil war has officially ended.

History reads.

Hi Everyone,

Do check the link below.

Title: Ancient and Medieval India Paperback 

Author: Poonam Dalal Dahiya

The role of great women in the Mughal Empire

Image source: Nur Jahan ((History and chronicles, wordpress.com)

Image source:  Mumtaz Mahal (travelogyindia.com)

The Mughal Empire founded by Babur by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat was the largest empire in medieval India. After Babur, Humayun came, then Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. The role of great Mughal women is largely ignored by historians. From wives to mothers to daughters each of them played an important role in the Mughal period.

They excelled in the arts, poetry, painting, music and administration. It was they who worked behind the curtains acting as regents, and advisors to the Mughal emperors. The most famous of the Mughal  women were Khanzada Begum, Gulbadan Begum, Maham Begum and Bega Begum.When Akbar came to the throne at the young age of 13 foster mothers such as Jiji Anaga and Maham Anaga became powerful. With the growth of the Mughal empire the wives of the emperors gained influence. So there was Harkha Bai, Salima Sultan Begum, Nurjahan and Mumtaz Mahal. As the empire prospered under Shah Jahan unmarried daughters became powerful like Jahanara Begum and Roshanara Begum. Finally under the last great mughal Aurangzeb we have his daughters like Zeb un nissa and Zeenat un nisa.

The early Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun had great respect for their mothers and grandmothers. Babur and his son Humayun had great respect for their elder sister Khanzada Begum. When they were invading India on horseback it was Khanzada  who secured Babur’s’ safety from the Uzbek warlord  Shaibani Khan.

There was no distinction between public and private space during the period of the earlier Mughals. Gulbadan Begum, Babur’s daughter and Humayun’s sister was asked by Akbar her grandnephew to write a biography of Babur and Humayun called Humayunnama. It has been translated in to English from Persian and is a major source about the life of the Mughal Women. With the coming of Akbar to the throne his  foster mother Maham Anaga played a prominent role in the Mughal court. She controlled the empire as regent when Akbar was young. A highly shrewd and ambitious woman she advanced her own authority in the Mughal court. When Akbar married a Rajput princess Harkha Bai it changed its outlook towards the Rajputs and led to a gradual shift in his attitude towards Hindus.

Akbar gave her the title Mariam-uz-Zamani and she bore him a son which later ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Jahangir. When Jahangir became the emperor he married Mehr-un-nissa and conferred on her the title of Nur Jahan meaning light of the world. After her marriage to Jahangir she swiftly rose in ranks and became the real power behind the throne. The emperor consulted her on every matter and her approval was necessary on any imperial seal. In the later years of Jahangir’s reign the Nurjahan junta came to dominate the Mughal court. Itimad ud Daula the father of Nurjahan, Asaf khan, Nurjahan’s brother and prince Khurram (the future emperor Shah Jahan) formed an alliance which came to be known as the Nur Jahan junta. Asaf Khan married his daughter Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) to prince Khurram (Shah jahan). Shah Jahan conferred on her the title of Mumtaz Mahal and the TajMahal was built by Shah Jahan in the memory of his favourite wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal was a religious woman and she took keen interest in the day to day administration of the empire. She had no political aspirations in contrast to her aunt Nur Jahan who wielded considerable influence in the Mughal court during the reign of Jahangir. She bore Shah Jahan fourteen children and died an untimely death in 1631. The TajMahal at Agra was built by Shah Jahan as the final resting place for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Shah jahan’s daughters Jahanara and Roshanara also played an active role in the Mughal court. When the war of succession broke out between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb over the Mughal throne. Jahanara supported his brother the heir apparent Dara Shikoh. Eventually Aurangzeb ascended the mughal throne by defeating and killing all his brothers.

Aurangzeb’s daughters Zeb un nissa and Zeenat un nissa also held important positions during his reign. Both were known for their deep knowledge of Islam and extensive charity. Aurangzeb’s chief wife Dilras Banu Begum also known as Rabia-ud-daurani had a deep influence over his religious policies.

Thus it can be said that the role of the great women in the Mughal Empire cannot be underestimated. They played different roles as wives, mothers and daughters. From, the beginnings of the empire by Babur till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.  It was the Mughal women who worked as the real power behind the throne of the Mughal emperors.

The Church in Medieval Europe

Image Source: historyhit.com

 Medieval Europe refers to the period in European history beginning with the fall of Western Roman Empire (476 AD) in the 5th century till the end of the 15th century. In the middle ages the Catholic Church had a profound influence over the lives of the people. The Pope held the supreme authority in the middle ages. The Church was the dominant institution in medieval Europe. Its influence was both in matters religious and political. It was the church who upholded the Christian values and propagated the Christian doctrine. Its power also extended to the appointment of kings and monarchs.

 After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century successor and independent kingdoms arose in Europe. The Germanic peoples had swept through Britain, France and Germany which led to a breakdown in the central authority of the Roman Empire. The last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus who was deposed in 476 AD.The Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Anglo Saxons, Goths and the Slavs occupied the eastern, western and central parts of Europe. This led to profound social, political and cultural changes in Europe. A characteristic feature of this period was the increase in urbanization in the cities of Europe. 

By the year 800 AD, The Frankish Empire was ruling over France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. The Anglo Saxons ruled over Britain and various city states existed in Europe. Each of these kingdoms converted to Christianity and as such the Church played a dominant role in Medieval Europe. The Catholic Church claimed to represent all European Christians and had a say in the day to day affairs of the state. Even a poorest peasant had to pay 1/10th of his earnings as tithe to the church. The Church did not pay any taxes and had a right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe. Over a period of time the church became an institution which accumulated wealth through sale of indulgences which led to corruption in the Church. 

Efforts were made to curb the growing power of the Catholic Church. In England, the Magna Carta signed in the year 1215 advocated the separation of the Church and state. It was signed by King John of England though it was annulled later by his barons. It was not till the beginning of the 16th century that the authority of the Roman Catholic Church came to be seriously challenged. 

The Protestant Reformation initiated by Martin Luther began to attack the church for its corruption and traditional dogma. He advocated that people read the Bible themselves and that it was the sole source of all spiritual authority. Martin Luther published his 95 theses. For this the Pope excommunicated Martin Luther. The Reformation subsequently spread to other parts of Europe. Kings and rulers broke away from the authority of the Catholic Church in Europe. 

The Church was the supreme religious and political authority in medieval Europe. But this began to change with the advent of early modern period. With the secularization of Europe in Early modern period people began to view reason and science over religion which led to a decline in the power and authority of the church.

Science and Technology in ancient India

                                          Image source: incipientinfo.com

Ancient Indians  made  significant contribution to science and technology.The earliest evidence is the  Indus valley civilization with its elaborate drainage and sewerage system,well planned cities,use of weights and measures.A number of excavated  sites have yielded  many technological  innovations like the animal drawn plough,cultivation of cotton, use of irrigation and canal system,sophisticated systems of measurement.

With the beginning of  the Vedic period we find evidence of use of large numbers for calculations.The Shatapatha Brahmana (9^th century BCE) provides a set of rules for ritual geometric  constructions. Baudhayana (8^th century BCE) wrote the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra which provides examples of  simple Pythagorean triples. The   Vedic  period also saw the development of astronomy and astrology in ancient India. The  Vedanga  Jyotisa compiled by Lagadha is the earliest Indian astronomical text which explains the astronomical calculations and calendrical studies. The Vedanga Jyotisa being a religious text  is also related to astrology. It  gives  information  regarding   lunar and  solar months, eclipses  and  the  various time and seasons of the year.

In medicine the Sushruta  Samhita is an ayurvedic text  containing 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses and their cure with different herbs. It also has  a detailed study of human anatomy. Cataract surgery was also known to Sushruta. In the 5^th century BCE Panini made remarkable contributions to phonetics,phonology and morphology.

Kautilya’s  Arthashastra  mentions the use of suspension bridges for the construction of dams. The Vaisheshika school of atomism  proposed by Kanada the Indian philosopher who lived in the 600BCE was  the earliest theory of atom in India. In the field of Mathematics Aryabhatta gave the concept of zero. The decimal system and the binary numbers  were also invented by ancient Indians. The Hindu Arabic numeral system from 1 to 9 originated in India which spread to Europe through the Middle East. In the 12^th century Bhaskara stated the calculus theorem which is now known as Rolle ’s Theorem. Indigo, a dye and its production and processing originated in India. The crystallization of sugar was also discovered during the Gupta dynasty. Glass making and its various techniques originated in India. The iron pillar at Delhi is also an example of innovation due to the fact that it stood  without rust for 2000 years.

Coin making also received an impetus in ancient India. Coins of bronze, copper and silver have been found at various sites throughout India. A characteristic feature of these coins is the sophisticated design and forging techniques by which these coins have been made.

Ancient Indians were skilled in science and technology before Europe made significant scientific innovations. Though, we can say with certainty that they were well ahead of time but the technological innovations in ancient India stands as a fact before the West that the Indian accomplishment to science and technology cannot be overlooked.

Book Review

Hi Everyone,

Book Review

Title:  The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300

Author: Romila Thapar

Review:

The book begins by a survey of the prehistory of India,the Indus Valley civilization, the vedic age, the rise of Buddhism and  Jainism, the formation of states and kingdoms and the cultural history of ancient India.

The book is written by an eminent historian in which the author explores the development of various schools of historiography in India. The author gives an insight about the rise and fall of Indian kingdoms and their causes. It also discusses about the social, economic and political conditions in ancient India.

The author also gives us a brief overview of the transition from ancient to early medieval India.She also notes about the progress in Indian art and  architecture during the ancient period.It also gives us information about the cultural history of ancient India.

The language used by the author is simple and lucid.

Rating: 3/5

Note: The book reviews are my personal and not sponsored.

The emergence,rise and decline of Buddhism in ancient India.

Image Source: Pinterest.com

When we hear about Buddhism, we converse about Gautam Buddha and his philosophical ideas.  But do we really know who Gautam Buddha was?

Gautam Buddha born between 6th century BCE- 4th century BCE was the founder of the Buddhist religion in India. Born in a  Kshatriya family in Lumbini, Nepal. Gautam Buddha was a prince who belonged to the Shakya clan.

When Gautam Buddha was young he witnessed scenes where he saw an old man with a stick, a dead body being taken to a cemetery , a poor man begging . This completely changed his outlook towards life. He investigated the  root  cause of all these problems and came to the conclusion that human life was full of sorrows and sufferings.

After  seeing this, he gave up his princely life and started meditating under a tree. After years of meditation Buddha became enlightened and attracted followers which became his disciples. For preaching the Buddhist philosophy he used the language of Pali. Over a period of time his followers came to be known as  Bhikkus or Monks.This was the beginning of Buddhism in India and subsequently it spread to East-Asia, South-east Asia and Central Asia.

Gautam Buddha emphasized the doctrine of transmigration of soul until it attains a state of Nirvana. He was against the prevailing caste system in ancient India. After his death, Buddhism eventually split into two schools of thought – “The Theravada school of Buddhism” and “The Mahayana school of Buddhism”. The Theravada school of Buddhism is the leading school in Srilanka,Myanmar,Laos and Cambodia. They believe that it is the most complete form of Buddhism. It lays stress on Spirituality, individual enlightenment,pure thoughts and actions, self discipline and it has a separate role for monks whereas Mahayana school of Buddhism emphasizes complete enlightenment and it is mostly prevalent in Korea, Japan, China,Vietnam, Tibet, Bangladesh, Malaysia. Over the course of time monasteries were established throughout India .

Initially Buddhism was confined only to eastern India but with the passage of time kings patronized Buddhism.The most famous of all these was the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka who converted to Buddhism after the battle of Kalinga.He sent missionaries to various parts of India and throughout East Asia,Central Asia and Southeast asia. After Ashoka the Greco Bactrians, Indo Greeks and the Kushanas patronized Buddhism.The main reason for the rise of Buddhism in Ancient India was that it was against the rituals and caste system prevalent in the Hindu religion at that time. Also Buddha preached in the language of the common people which was Pali.

Buddhism also had a  cultural impact on the art and architecture of  ancient India as exemplified by the Ajanta and Ellora caves where Buddha is shown in a symbolic expression meditating. Also the Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is another example of Buddhist architecture. The Amaravati stupa in Andhra Pradesh though ruined is also a testimony to Buddhist architecture.

Buddhism eventually began to decline in India .A number of causes have been attributed which are loss of royal patronage,regionalization of Indian kingdoms,the reassertion of Brahminical ideology,the rise of Rajputs and the Muslim Invasions.

In short it can be said that Buddhism was a response to the changing social and political conditions in ancient India. Its emergence,rise and decline coincided with the rise and fall of Indian kingdoms .It can be concluded  that Buddhism's philosophical and cultural significance held prominence in ancient India .