The Beginning of modern Japan

The beginning of modern Japan can be traced to the Meiji Restoration of 1868.Before the Meiji Restoration the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period (1600-1868) ruled over Japan which was characterized by a feudal social and economic system. In the 1500s power came to be decentralized in Japan characterized by warfare between rival feudal lords(daimyo) for almost a century. After the victory in the battle of Sekigahara in 1600, the Tokugawa shogunate came to rule Japan from Edo.The Tokugawa shogunate thus began a dynasty that would rule over Japan till 1868.

The society in the Tokugawa period was centered on the class hierarchy established by the emperor. The emperor and daimyo(lords) constituted the upper class followed by the samurai (warrior class) and the farmers, artisans, and traders at the bottom. The feudalistic nature of Japanese society was based on the Confucian principles of social order. The peasants which comprised 80% of the population was burdened with taxes. The samurai (warrior class) had the choice to either give up military service or become daimyos (feudal lords). It was this social system that eventually led to peasant uprisings and samurai unrest against the feudal lords.

The economy of the Tokugawa shogunate from the 1680s to the early 1700s placed an emphasis on agricultural production leading to considerable growth. The expansion of manufacture and commerce contributed to the development of urban centres such as Edo, Osaka , and Kyoto. Japan also produced fine silk, cotton fabrics, porcelain, and paper which gave rise to trade. The increase of mercantile activity led to the rise of a merchant class in Japan. However, while merchants and tradesmen prospered, the daimyos and samurai faced financial difficulties. Several attempts were made for financial reforms in the late 18^th and 19^th century but the samurai (warrior class) continued to face financial difficulties. This coupled with the Western encroachment by European and Western powers who wanted to trade with Japan beginning with the expedition of Commodore Matthew Perry of USA in the 19^th century contributed to peasant rebellions and samurai uprisings in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate.

A series of unequal treaties beginning with the treaty of Kanagawa which opened the ports of Japan to America led to the Meiji Restoration of 1868 in which two anti-Tokugawa clans of the samurai class joined forces to overthrow the shogunate and in 1868 the Meiji restoration proclaimed an imperial restoration in the name of the young emperor Meiji who was only 14 years old. During the Meiji period Japan prospered from being an isolated nation to one of the world’s industrialized nations along with Britain, USA, Russia, France, Italy, and Spain. The country experienced important social, economic and political changes with the abolition of the feudal system and the acceptance of a cabinet system of government. Japan also opened up to Western influence and trade and also witnessed the build-up of military strength leading to Japan’s rise as a world power.

Beginning in the 1890s Japan embarked on a process of rapid industrialization, modernization, and expansion. In 1894-95 Japan fought a war against China over the control of Korea and occupied Taiwan. In 1902 Japan signed an alliance with Britain and in 1904-5 Japan went to war against Russia and in the process annexed Korea in its empire. During the First world war, Japan was allied with USA and Britain and was hopeful of territorial gains at the Versailles peace conference in 1919. However, Japan was met with opposition from America. The failure of Japan coupled with economic depression led to public frustration with the political leadership in Japan after First world war. The military began to push for Japanese expansionism and imperialism in Asia just as Italy and Germany were doing in Europe.

Taking pretext of The Manchurian incident of 1931 the Japanese army conquered Manchuria in China and established a puppet government. Meanwhile, the imperial Japanese army consolidated its control over the political system and most political parties were abolished in Japan. Japan’s ambitions grew increasingly bold and it eventually led to the outbreak of the Second Sino Japanese war in 1937. The USA opposed Japan’s invasion of China and imposed economic sanctions on Japan. Japan responded by making an alliance with Germany and Italy known as the Tripartite pact in 1940 worsening its relations with the USA. In December 1941 Japan bombed the US naval base atPearlHarbour in retaliation to these economic sanctions and went to war against America. In the initial stages of the war, Japan won victory after victory but after 1942 Japan suffered military reversals at the hand of the Allies. By 1945 Japan had all but lost the war against America and in August 1945 with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by America Japan was defeated by the Allied powers.

After the Second world war, Japan experienced rapid political and social transformation under the Allied occupation of Japan by General Douglas MacArthur. The occupation decentralized power in Japan by eliminating the Zaibatsu and in the process transferring the ownership of agricultural land to tenant farmers. Japan was demilitarized and democratized. The Japanese military was disarmed and its colonies were granted independence. The international military tribunal of the Far East was established to punish war criminals and Japan’s new constitution came in to force in 1947 which guaranteed civil liberties, women’s suffrage and labour rights. The San Francisco Peace treaty was signed between Japan and USA in 1951 which normalized relations between USA and Japan.

Japan witnessed rapid economic growth after the Second world war and by the 1950s and 60s, it had the world’s most developed economy. The reasons behind Japan’s post-war economic growth included technology and quality control techniques, close economic relations with the USA and participation of the private sector in running small businesses. Life expectancy rose and Japan’s population rose to 123 million in 1990.Women were granted the right to vote and currently, Japan is the most advanced economy in the world. In 2011 Japan suffered the most devastating earthquake and the resulting tsunami led to the damage of nuclear facilities in Fukushima.

Economy of medieval India

The economy of medieval India begins with the coming of Muslims to India in the early 13^th century. Before discussing the economic history of medieval India, it is essential to have a glimpse of the economy of ancient and early medieval India in the post Gupta period. From the fifth century AD, the practice of land grants became frequent. The Brahmanas were granted villages free from taxes that were collected by the king from the villages. The beneficiaries of this land grants were given the right to govern the people in the donated villages. Till the fifth century, the ruler retained the rights to these land grants, and the Brahmanas not only collected taxes from the peasants and artisans but also maintained law and order in the villages granted to them. Thus, the power of the king was heavily undermined from the end of the Gupta period.

Especially in the post Gupta period the agrarian economy underwent significant changes. Landed beneficiaries could neither cultivate land nor own it. The monasteries and Brahmanas who were the beneficiaries of these land grants hired peasants and slaves to work on these lands. Eventually, a landed aristocracy came to dominate the economy of ancient and early medieval India at the expense of the king. Thus, royal power was eroded and historians have come to use the term Indian feudalism in the context of these land grants.

With the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate the land revenue policy underwent considerable reforms. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji major land, agrarian and fiscal reforms were introduced in north India. Different categories of land existed during the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. The first was Iqta and for administration and land revenue collection, the state was divided into tracts called iqtas under iqtadars or muqtis. An iqta holder collected revenue from the land and remitted the balance to the central government. The iqtadars system as a means of collecting tax and distribution of revenues to the ruling class. The second category of land was khalisa or the royal land. This type of land was under the control of the government.

Alauddin Khalji levied different taxes on lands such as kharaj, charai, and ghari. The whole land was measured and a fixed portion of the state was assessed on the basis of these measurements. In addition to these, the strength of middlemen or khuts, muqaddams, and choudharies was considerably weakened, and thus the produce directly went from the farmers to the state. The revenue administration established by Alauddin Khalji was continued by his successors. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty fixed the share of state at 1/10^th of the total produce in contrast to Alauddin’s 50 percent. Muhammad bin Tughlaq made several changes in the revenue administration. He ordered the compilation of a register of the expenditure and income of the sultanate and introduced a uniform system of land revenue. He established a department of agriculture called Diwan-i-kohi with the intention of bringing more land under cultivation. Firoz Shah Tughlaq provided loans to the farmers and encouraged irrigation. He had got dug four canals for the purpose of irrigation and increased the salaries of the revenue officers so that the peasants are not harassed by the revenue officials. Firoz Shah introduced four taxes i.e. The Zakat, Jaziya, Khiraj, and Khamo.Khiraj was the land tax, Khams means 1/5^th of the booty captured during wars, Zakat a   tax on Muslims for religious purposes and Jaziya a tax levied on Hindus.

With the beginning of the Mughal rule in the 16^th century the economy of medieval India underwent significant changes. Babur and Humayun continued to follow the land and revenue administration of the Delhi Sultanate. However, it was Akbar who is credited with completely reorganizing the land revenue system. Akbar introduced the Zabti system and under this system, the cultivable lands were measured. After the measurement of the land, the state’s share was assessed on the basis of the produce of the land. The land was classified into four categories Polaj, Parauti, Chachar and Banjar.

Polaj was the first category of land which was readily cultivable. Throughout the season it had some crop ready. The second land was Parauti which was fallow land, Chachar was the third category of land which had to be left for three or four years to regain fertility and the fourth category of land was Banjar or barren land. The state share was calculated on the basis of these three grades of land and their average was the share of the state. The state share was 1/3^rd of the total produce and the share was paid either in cash or kind though the former was preferred.

Another aspect of The Mughal empire was the jagirdari system. The jagirdari system in the Mughal empire was a system in which the jagirdars or nobles were granted jagirs (landed estates) in lieu of their services to the emperor. The jagirdars and the zamindars formed the backbone of the Mughal empire and they were paid in cash or kind. However, in the late 17^th century during the reign of Aurangzeb the jagirdari crisis eventually led to the disintegration of the Mughal empire as there was not enough land for the jagirdars which led to the jagirdars forming their own independent states.

Trade and commerce also played an important role in the economy of medieval India as intra-regional ,inter-regional and external trade contributed to the economy of medieval India.Agra,Burhanpur, Aurangabad, Delhi , and Lahore were the centres of overland trade between India and Central Asia whereas seaborne trade was conducted between Surat,Cambay, Bharuch, and Arabia. North India imported luxury items and exported indigo and food grains. Silk, spices, and various other items were exported by India to other countries. The Bengal Subah alone accounted for over 50% to 80% of the exports and imports of India. By far the most important development in the economic history of medieval India was Hundis (Bills of exchange) as it amounted to cashless transactions in the Mughal empire.

With the beginning of the 17^th century the Europeans came to dominate the Indian trade as various European powers such as Portuguese, British, Dutch, and French established their factories and posts on the coastal cities of India. The Banjaras emerged as the most dominant class of traders in the economy of medieval India. Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the banjaras for the transportation of grain to the city markets. Mughal emperor Jahangir mentions the banjaras as carrying grains on their bullocks and transporting them to the cities. It can be summed up that the economy of medieval India was one of prosperity and growth until the advent of the British rule in India.

Book Review

Hi Everyone,

Book Review

Title:  India's ancient past

Author: R. S. Sharma

Review:

The book begins with the approaches of various historians towards the writing of ancient Indian history. It then discusses about the nature of sources which helps in constructing ancient Indian history. It further throws light on the prehistory of India, the Indus Valley civilization, the origin of the Indo-Aryans, the geographical background, the linguistic groups, the origins of Jainism and Buddhism.  It also further explains the beginning and formation of Mahajanapadas, the rise of the Magadha kingdom, and the Iranian and Macedonian invasions.

The period of the Mauryas, Central Asian countries, Satvahanas, Guptas, and the rule of Harshavardhana is also elaborated. The author also discusses the varna system, urbanization, commerce and trade, development in science and philosophy, and the cultural legacy of ancient India.

The author also analyzes the process of transition from ancient to medieval India.

The author was a renowned scholar of ancient India and the book will be helpful for students preparing for competitive exams and students of history.

Although, I would have given the rating of 4. But the pages not being in sequence makes it very complicated to read.

Rating: 3.5/5

Note: The book reviews are my personal and not sponsored.

Marriage customs in ancient India

Marriage customs in ancient India were laid down by the religious texts. The Shastras prescribed marriage as a Samskar for women. Marriage was regarded as necessary to continue the family line and after marriage, the woman acquired the status of ardhangani(wifehood) and grahlaxmi. The Hindu law stressed a marriage in which a bride adorned with ornaments is married to a suitable bridegroom before the nuptial fire. However, there were deviations in the forms of marriage and eight types of marriages were recognized in ancient India. Thus, attitudes towards marriage in ancient India changed with the prevailing circumstances and conditions.

In the Vedic period marriage was seen as necessary for the desire of offspring and sons were particularly favored over daughters. The necessity of sons was prayed for along with cattle and land but there was no desire for daughters. The society in ancient India was patriarchal and the son alone had the right to perform the funeral rites for his father and continue the family line. A woman who could not bear a son was looked down upon. The marriage ceremony in ancient India commenced with the bridegroom holding the hand of the bride and leading her around the fire. These acts were important in a marriage and the bridegroom became the husband and the bride his wife(Patni).

There was considerable freedom on the young persons in the selection of their future husband or wife and the consent of parents or brother was not necessary. The Rigveda mentions the newly married wife taking up the most respectable position in her new household and she had considerable authority over her husband’s brother, father, and unmarried sister. The hymns in Rigveda also mentions the practice of having a childless widow to cohabit with her brother in law until the birth of a son. Widow remarriage was permitted under certain circumstances in ancient India. However, with the passage of time there were many restrictions placed in marriages. The Shatapatha Brahmana has a certain set of rules regarding marriage in ancient India. Marriage within the gotra and outside the gotra were more frequent. Brothers and sisters were not allowed to marry before their elder brother or sister got married.

Widow remarriage was allowed and polygamy also existed in ancient India. The first wife enjoyed all the privileges of a wife in religion and society but in Yajnavalkya the two wives enjoyed equal rights. Conjugal morality was generally high and infidelity on the part of the wife was unknown. The prevalence of dowry in marriages existed in ancient India. The marriage ceremony described in the Rigveda and emphasized in the Atharvaveda stressed that the bridegroom had to mount a stone on the bride before grasping her hand. The ideal family life was stressed in which the newly married wife becomes the mistress of her husband’s home is mentioned in the Rigveda. The term Patni(wife) mentioned in the Brahmanas indicates the wife’s equal share in the religious and social life of her husband while the term Jaya indicates only her conjugal position. The practice of sati did not exist during the early Vedic period of ancient India.

The woman held an honorable position in the household and marriages in ancient India were accompanied by song and dance. However, the presence of a widow was deemed undesirable in marriage. The dharma sutras speak of about the widow’s right in the property of her husband and hence the practice of sati in ancient India can be ruled out. The Vasishta Dharma sutras mention about widow remarriage under certain circumstances so widow remarriage was not strictly prohibited. The Baudhayana Dharma sutra speaks about a barren woman who could not bear children should be abandoned. So, the abandonment of the wife was allowed but not divorce. The Dharma sutras also agree that a woman on reaching puberty should be given in marriage at a proper time by her father but she can also choose her own husband after waiting for three years or months. The later religious texts advocated that men are the masters of women, their father protects them in childhood, their husbands in youthhood, and sons in old age.

During the epic period, major changes took place in the institution of marriage. Marriage between members of the same caste was allowed however marriage with a girl of the same gotra was prohibited. The chastity of women has also emphasized especially physical chastity and women had to obey her husband. The marriageable age was lowered and unmarried women were looked down upon. The growing importance of physical chastity gradually led to the discouragement of widow remarriage, divorce, and the growing practice of sati. Kautilya allows the remarriage of a woman whose husband has died, has gone abroad, or had become an ascetic. However, the Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya prohibited widow remarriage. The Agni Purana and the Parasara Smriti recognizes that a woman is allowed to remarry in the lifetime of her husband if he is lost, is impotent, or is an outcaste.

Divorce was generally recognized in ancient India. Kautilya allowed divorce to both men and women while Manu was not in favor of divorce for women. Manu allowed divorce for wife by the husband but not for a husband by wife. A woman who is unable to bear a son to her husband can be abandoned by her husband. The practice of sati was prevalent and, in the Mahabharata, there are several instances of women burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands,

The caste system had become well established during this period and marriages were based on caste. Medatithi allowed inter-caste marriage between a Brahmana and a Kshatriya while marriage between a Brahmana and a sudra woman was prohibited. The Narada Purana proclaims that a marriage of twice-born men with other castes is prohibited in Kaliyuga.The wife was expected to be obedient and faithful to her husband to the point of shampooing her husband’s feet. The husband also had the right to beat his wife on her back with a rope. But this did not imply actual beating and it was only used as a corrective measure.